Steaming into the splendid Bosphorus Strait from the Black Sea, with Europe on your right and Asia on your left, you cannot help but feel the historic contrast between these two mighty continents. While this difference seemingly had disappeared long ago, it now unexpectedly appears to have regained some of its former strength. Once again, as of old, Asia stands over against Europe-and, in part, America. Africa figures in world affairs only at its southern tip and along its northern rim, and will attain a self-standing position only in the future. For now, relations along its northern edge are developing along similar lines to those between Europe and Asia.
A single Asia lies adjacent to America on its east coast and Europe along its long western and southern edge-Asia with 830 million people, Europe and America together with their 485 million. This disparity in populations never posed any serious danger in past centuries because the slogan "Asia for the Asians," or Asia fara da se, had never been raised. Yes, a steady stream of wild horsemen had thrown itself upon southern and eastern Europe from the steppes of central Asia-first under Attila, sometime later under Genghis Khan, then Tamerlane, and finally the Ottoman sultans. Under Attila these barbarians reached Orleans, and under the Moors all the way to Tours. But these hordes were driven by a craving for loot and revenge, which is why they wreaked havoc with equal cruelty in Asia as well. China, India, Persia, and even the caliphate suffered bitterly at their hand. A compelling legend from this period tells that after the combat in the Catalonian fields (451 AD), the spirits of the slain continued the battle in the air even while their bodies lay bleeding on the battlefield.[2] But the long struggle against Attila, Genghis Khan, and Tamerlane did not pit Asia against Europe, but rather "barbarism" against civilization. Later, at Tours, it was Islam against Christianity, the Crescent against the Cross. When the Mongol conquerors took the Russian boyars and generals whom they had vanquished, stretched them out along the ground, laid planks over them, and proceeded to celebrate their Bacchanalia on that floor, this was the wrath of barbarians, not the proclamation of an autonomous and independent Asia.[3] China and the Indian subcontinent, the sites where the vast majority of the Asian population resides, either remained outside the conflict or suffered under it themselves.
THE RISE OF ASIA
But now things have taken a turn. The unprecedented mastery Japan demonstrated over Russia has sent a shockwave through the heart of everything Asian, awakening a spirit of high expectations. A triumphal consciousness of their own power is rising among all its peoples. For four centuries now, Europe has held an irresistible mastery over Asia. The Ottoman Empire lost its strength while Russia penetrated into the very heart of Asia. England made itself master of the entire Indian subcontinent. Foreign powers imposed their law along the coasts of China. The Archipelago[4] has long been in European hands. In Southeast Asia, Annam and Cochinchina fly the French tricolor.[5] America has taken the Philippines from Spain. Any breath of resistance has been broken by force majeure. Time and again China has been chastised, even as Germany installed itself as a new power in Kiao-Chau.[6] Weakness acquiesced to strength. Poorly armed and poorly organized, Asia has been unable to withstand either Europe or the United States.
That mood of resignation has since made way for one of near-recklessness. Compared to China, Japan is quite modest in size, yet it waged a life-and-death struggle with the northern colossus. It had developed its power both on land and at sea so remarkably that the battle, once joined, quickly brought about Russia's total defeat. Japan has as good as annexed Korea and essentially runs things in Manchuria. Economically it is developing rapidly. It has plenty of European capital invested at reasonable rates of interest. Its lower wage structure makes it quite competitive with American and European industry. In technology it advances year by year and is already competing with Europe in the fields of the natural sciences and scholarship. The center of world politics has already moved, in significant degree, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and the digging of the Panama Canal will only underscore this development. Europe itself has supplied Japan with the knowledge, the benefit of experience, and even some of the means for its amazing development. The Japanese have adapted most competitively in higher education, military camps, and naval yards, and it is already clear that in naval preparedness and military development they trail neither England nor Germany.
In tactics the Japanese have schooled old Europe. They have the threefold advantage of an extremely sober sensibility, high patriotic enthusiasm, and cool nerves. History records that Genghis Khan's hordes swarmed the steppes with nothing but some dried meat and cheese in their knapsacks. Although the Japanese commissary opted for better provisions, the soldiers' frugality did not trail the mounted warriors', and it proved equal to the severest hardship. Their enthusiasm was equally notable. The contempt for death with which the Japanese battalions assaulted the strong fortifications of Port Arthur manifested more than heroic courage.[7] Their unwavering willingness to devote their very lives to storming the barricades demonstrated that a high patriotic conviction had set these men afire. No sacrifice for the Japanese fatherland was considered too severe, a sentiment elevated further by the religious concept of ancestor-worship.
It is a mistake to think that only the honor of Japan as a country was at play here. Equally strong was Japan's strong antipathy toward the alien western element, closely connected with East Asian self-regard. Practically speaking this was manifest in their steady nerves. That quality is already of some import in combat on land, but especially in modern naval warfare it is, if not decisive, certainly of disproportionate weight. This is the case for two reasons. Those who are high-strung are always on the lookout for a much-needed stimulus, such as the Russian with his vodka. And a nervous commander of a modern battleship, say, is easily thrown off guard by the shriek and explosion of shells. Japanese soldiers and sailors suffer no such qualms. Under heavy artillery fire they remain quiet and calm-resorting to alcohol for stimulation and bravado is entirely foreign to them. Psychologically, therefore, the Japanese have the advantage in any battle on land or sea where the numbers and odds are even. It is this double psychological edge that explains Japan's imperturbable, machine-like progress through its recent unbroken series of triumphs.
The Russo-Japanese War has revealed something hitherto unknown. We Europeans have long simply assumed that, all other things being equal, Asians are far inferior to us. It is now evident that the Asian is at least our equal, if not in many respects our superior. This discovery has both frightened us and rapidly resounded throughout Asia as a voice of future liberation. In the eyes of the Asian, the white man has lost his aura of superiority. The realization that Asians can match us everywhere has taken root in China, in the heart of Asia, and even in India. They feel weak for the moment because of their lack of readiness, but now foresee the prospect of throwing off their inferior status. What Japan can do they feel they can too, and so they are already searching for a way to follow Japan's lead. Unexpectedly the morning star of a wonderful ideal has arisen over Asia. It might not yet be clear as to how to achieve that ideal, but Japan, mighty Japan, has stepped up and is to be followed as leader and teacher. This task Japan has taken upon itself. It did not wait to be summoned but, on its own initiative, gave expression to this slumbering expectation.
Now China has awakened, with its agents starting to stream out all over the place. The Chinese are ready to shed their silk robes and buckle up the harness. China is much, much larger than Japan and will therefore move a little slower, but move it will. In this regard, predicting the future is not difficult: once launched, China will surpass the Japanese not only in numbers but also in manpower and higher development. It will take time, of course, before signs of a more vigorous life emerge also in South Asia. Japan has guaranteed England its Indian possessions in advance, so for now these lie outside the scope of Japan's aspirations.[8] But the principle of "Asia for the Asians" is finding traction there without any Japanese propaganda. Though it is somewhat slower than in Europe, there is communication across Asia, particularly between Chinese and Indian Buddhists. Even if the process takes fifty years, what is half a century in the transformation of world history? Such a movement, once commenced, will advance irresistibly unless-and this is also possible-in a later phase a counter-action against Japan's hegemony arises out of Europe and America. Even that would not delay the danger for long. Once awakened China can develop a tremendous power that will overcome any resistance, even without Japan's help. Economically, great treasures lie hidden in this giant empire, and none less than Gordon declared in the war with the Boxers that he knew of no better soldier than the Chinese.[9]
CONCERN FOR THE COLONIES
The foregoing is not intended to arouse fear and anxiety but only to prevent surprise over this outcome. For the colonial powers in particular, which are the first in line, the emergence of this danger will only be a matter of time. Tensions can be softened somewhat if people try not to suppress but indulge this rising movement of Asian blood to a certain point. Bear in mind that the Chinese in particular have nomadic tendencies; they tolerate tropical climates better than do the Japanese; and Li Hongzhang has already seriously protested the unequal position reserved for the Chinese in the Dutch colonies.[10] Even if the Japanese are less inclined to migrate south in large numbers and for the moment have found areas for colonization in Korea and Manchuria, a few of them have started settling more in other regions, and whoever claimed that each Japanese is sort of an agent for and bearer of a national idea is certainly not far from the truth. The Philippines are already home to 70,000 Japanese.
In and of itself it would be silly to argue against a reassertion of independence on the part of Asian nations that have attained sufficient maturity for autonomous development. However difficult it will be for the colonial powers, from a higher perspective it should be cause for rejoicing when millions arise from what appeared to be their sleep of death and aspire to greater vitality. The question is, rather, whether the Asian movement will be satisfied once, sooner or later, this goal has been achieved. Undoubtedly a kind of Asian Monroe Doctrine will become fashionable, at least in East and South Asia.[11] For now, we must take account of the struggle of economic interests which will probably be the first order of business. Some Chinese markets have boycotted American goods for quite a while already, and statistics indicate serious Japanese attempts to compete with European imports into China.
Over the past thirty years, high-level politics have increasingly focused on the issue of débouchés [expansion] with respect to European and American industry. It is too much to say that economic issues have wholly dominated international politics, since other matters have been addressed as well, particularly those driven by national and imperialistic motives. Yet it is beyond dispute that the international struggle has been primarily of a one-sided materialistic character. Consider only the insatiable desire for colonial possessions, the parceling out of Africa as booty, the recurrent tariff wars, and, finally, the fermentation in Europe that threatened war in Morocco.[12] Most certainly Japanese and Chinese industry will catch up to us, particularly in the areas of technical skill and taste. Combined with the efficient use of capital, their lower wages will give these countries a competitive edge that will prove difficult for us to overcome. At present there is not only a movement afoot to drive us out of Japan and China, but also to compete with us in European markets. It is easy to see that this will lead to conflict; Europe and the United States will not be driven out without a fight. Similarly, it is most unlikely that the United States will sit quietly by while its states are inundated by the Chinese and Japanese. American statesmen are busily engaged in discussions regarding the erection of a legislative dam to forestall these developments. The ban on Japanese school children in California is a prelude.[13]
But let us assume for a moment that even this issue can be peacefully resolved. Then the serious question presents itself: will an awakened and very powerful Asia, which already commands not only a myriad of troops but also a world-class naval fleet, remain a peaceful neighbor to Europe nearby and to the United States overseas? In its eras of former power Asia showed a strong tendency to carry its standard far beyond its borders. Persia threw itself upon Greece, Attila ravaged half of Europe, Genghis Khan destroyed the Russia of the day and was even seen in Bohemia and Poland. Islam conquered North Africa and Spain, while the Turks were only halted outside of Vienna. Will an Asia resurrected in power have cast aside this past tendency? Will there be no thought of reprisals for Europe's centuries-long affliction of Asia? Apart from all this, shall not the difference in fundamental type, and therefore in outlook and interests, between East and West remain a fateful source of ongoing entanglement and friction? Will not a desire to determine who is stronger and thus establish the terms of mutual relationship provide a constant source of tension building up to a gigantic struggle? Even though this change in relative strength between these two powers still lies in the distant future-many years even, likely an entire generation-it would be highly imprudent to ignore the implications of this coming reality. Forty years ago no one would have believed that a Japanese powerhouse would emerge within one generation, yet this undeniable fact stands visibly before us.
With respect to its colonies, the Netherlands in particular must be clearly aware of the demands placed upon it by the altered conditions in the East. Russia is rebuilding its fleet, and should it ever decide to engage the East in hostilities in the future, any other power from the West will have to approach the field of battle by sea. In any such operation the Dutch archipelago is the great strait through which an eastern-bound European fleet or a western-bound Asian fleet will have to find passage. In the recent war this posed a real danger for the Netherlands, which felt compelled to preemptively strengthen its naval power in the archipelago. Naval hostilities could easily have erupted there. Apart from this, however, many wartime conditions give rise to actual inconveniences and disputed points of law: postal and telegraphic communication, the furnishing of coal and provisions, the sheltering of pursued ships, and the harboring of damaged war vessels-the list could go on. Engaging such activities could quite innocently irritate one of the belligerent powers, give rise to complaints, and thus set the stage for further complications.
The great distance separating mother country and colonies exacerbates this danger for us. If Japan, in particular, were involved in such a future war so as to activate its alliance with England, it is highly doubtful whether a Dutch warship from the mother country could reach the archipelago. Although telegraphic correspondence with Batavia, independent of the English lines, seems pretty well assured, no ship could pass through the Red Sea without falling into enemy hands. In addition, no warship of five to six thousand tons can steam around the Cape owing to the lack of our own coaling stations there. Recall we ceded by treaty our past possessions on the Gold Coast of West Africa, in St. George d'Elmina. Even if we dismiss the rumors currently swirling in the press that ascribe to Japan ominous plans against our colonies, we must acknowledge that any such aggression would place the Netherlands in a very unsafe position, even in a war in which it was not itself involved. While we cherish the hope that the second and a subsequent third peace conference will more sharply delineate the rights and responsibilities of neutral powers in times of naval warfare, even this will not completely ensure the Netherlands's position in the East.[14] In fact, the Netherlands would show unpardonable shortsightedness in its colonial policy if it were to be naïve to the dangers of the newly arisen situation. Isolation can harbor strength, but it can also foretell power's demise.[15]
EASTERN RELIGION AND THE WESTERN PRESENCE
Much weightier in import, if of less immediate interest, is an entirely different question: whether the coming struggle might not also involve the religious opposition between paganism and Christianity. There are good reasons to wonder. It cannot be denied that Christian missions in the East continue to be a thorn in the side of the native people. An Eastern woman of noble birth who, for all her native origins, highly valued being seen as fully modernized, once told me at the close of a particularly violent attack on Christianity: "The biggest bane of my country are these miserable missionaries. Oh, I would love to have them in front of me! I'd take a big knife and slit their throats like sheep." If this represents the opinion of a woman of high society parading her modern attainments, then what must pass in the heart of the commoners who are still attached to their ancestral religion?
The enmity toward these missions would probably have been less severe if they had come into Asia from the west. For centuries already, first the Jews, then the Nestorians, and finally the Muslims attempted to diminish paganism in China, and not without initial success. Arabic writers report on Jewish congregations in China in the ninth century. As recently as 1866, W. Martin not only reported that a Chinese monument from the time of Ling-Hung mentions the construction of a Jewish temple, but even found a small group of Jews whose last rabbi had just recently died.[16] According to the famous inscription at Si-ngang Fu, the Nestorians had gained a foothold in the heavenly kingdom as early as the seventh century, and were still present in number in the fourteenth.[17] Likewise, Islam penetrated China in the eighth century and still numbers some thirty million adherents there. The highly successful propaganda machine proclaiming the three forms of monotheism proceeded readily under the tolerant spirit of the Mongols. It is common knowledge how Genghis Khan legislated free exercise of all religions, and how the Buddhist monk and imam, the rabbi and the Christian priest, all found themselves peacefully together in his huge army camp, exempt from military service and taxation, and treated with honor by the authorities.
When, in the sixteenth century, Christian missionaries arrived in China by sea, nothing was placed in the way of their preaching. The Court of Beijing received them with remarkable kindness. It seems that the struggle of the Franciscans and Dominicans against the order of the Jesuits (who were among the first missionaries) brought the initial change in those good relations. In the second half of the eighteenth century, Emperor Yongzheng resolved upon a decidedly hostile attitude against all Christian missions.[18] The course he embarked upon continued uninterrupted until 1858, when the English-negotiated Treaty of Tianjin stipulated that missionary preachers would have free access everywhere, and that both they and their converts would be protected by the government. But this treaty only generated further antagonism.[19] The lower classes considered this provision an insult; the Mandarins opposed it; and especially the followers of Confucius remained hostile to Christianity. A new massacre occurred at Tianjin in 1870.[20] Almost every year thereafter, either missionaries or converts have fallen victim to the antipathy borne toward Christianity. Not surprisingly, this led to intervention. But the very fact that the Chinese government was forced time and again, under pressure of barbarian regimes, to side with the Christians against its own subjects not only kept the tension very much alive but also reinforced the nationals' aversion to Christianity. The people regarded the protection of the missions by foreign powers to be a national humiliation. This dislike became a permanent fixture and turned decidedly against both the Roman Catholic and the well-known Protestant mission inspired by Charles Gutzlaff.[21] Nonetheless, almost amazingly, there are 1.5 million Roman Catholics and 200,000 Protestants in that country.
Japan initially showed the same spirit of indifference. In the third century the Chinese already had introduced the primal nature worship common to all Mongols, modifying Japan's native Shintoism. Laozi's system brought in demon-worship.[22] Buddhism came over from Korea in the sixth century, after the system of Confucius had already gained a mighty following. It was thus not surprising that [Francis] Xavier met almost no resistance in 1549 when he commenced his Christian mission in Japan, and the church had uncommon success in spreading in the south. But soon thereafter, in 1614, xenophobia struck Christians too, and a quarter century later, in 1638, anyone who had converted or was considering converting to Christianity was threatened with death. In Cimiez, by Nice, you can still view the depictions of the terrible atrocities which were inflicted on Japanese Christians during this massacre. This situation prevailed until about 1875.
Ever since Japan opened its doors to Europe, its ruling circles have abandoned the old system of isolation and enlisted European culture. With that, persecution naturally came to an end, and now religious freedom prevails. Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox, and Protestant churches have renewed their missions to Japan, and baptized Christians can be found among high-ranking public officials and well-known generals. Bear in mind, however, that among these Christian missions were found those who espoused so-called modern Christianity, and that it was particularly this system of faith, stripped of all confessional distinctives, that found ready entrance. Experts on Japan tell us that some of the trendsetters there wonder whether Japan might not adopt such a modernist Christianity as its official state and folk religion if it wishes to develop along completely European lines. Meanwhile, the resurgent power evidenced in the recent war has strongly stimulated Japan's national feeling, reawakening the xenophobic spirit and reviving the old antipathy to the authentic, historic Christian faith. With Japan's power rising and China seeking to develop its vast dimensions in the same way, it follows that the Asian ideal will hold sway over against that of the West. This sooner or later will lead to a struggle for power that will almost certainly involve religious conflict as well. Recall too that Buddhism, so powerful in both kingdoms, could easily drag all of southern Asia into the fray. Meanwhile, a strong Buddhist propaganda effort is already underway in various forms in Europe and America. This is beginning to attract attention in India from whence it is further disseminated by volunteers or commissioned agents. Even now an entire library of missionary literature is being developed that praises theosophy and Buddhism. Once begun, this movement will gain real traction, especially among the social elite.[23]
We should not forget that all these cultures-Chinese, Japanese, and Indian, each of which has grown so powerfully and blossomed in so distinctive a manner from its own root-are knitted together most intimately with the religious ideas of their peoples. All of national life, all domestic habits, and all industrial, artistic, and scholarly developments are interwoven with customs and regulations rooted in their religious concepts. Religion, culture, and national development form a complete unity. Therefore, if Japan were to abandon its ancestral tradition much more than it has to date and build itself all the more on a European base, and if China, followed by India, were to emulate the Japanese example, we would have a reassuring answer to the question many are asking: will the peoples of East Asia ultimately abandon their religious views as well and absorb the basic principles that have given rise to our current European culture? In and of itself, this is not an unthinkable proposition, and if it were to happen, it would provide a welcome safeguard against the threat that religious conflict will finally come to dominate the struggle between Europe and Asia.
But the things we are hearing from Japan give us little reason for hope. After the war, the emperor performed his peace offering to the ghosts of emperors past in the exact prescribed manner. Even more telling is the robust propagation of ancient nature worship in Chinese Buddhism. The initial success of the Jesuit order in the sixteenth century was largely due to a dubious agreement their missionaries had made regarding the consequences of nature worship, but the pope finally sent an ambassador to China to stem this evil. The imperial court at Beijing took up the Jesuits' cause. As soon as this judgment against any mixing of old Mongol traditions with the Christian religion from the West became known, full-fledged persecution of Christianity immediately followed. It should be concerning, therefore, that in their efforts to match us in all fields of endeavor-military, maritime, industry, and intellectual-they will take as much as they can over from us. But their national spirit will remain unchanged and will master the art of adapting newly introduced systems of thought to their existing religious traditions.
The monotheistic and soteriological character of Christianity runs much too deep to penetrate the masses by the vehicle of modern culture alone, without some basic conversion. East Asia's foundational principles and world-and lifeviews have been strongly rooted in the spirit of these peoples over the course of centuries, and are inextricably intertwined with their physical and psychological constitution. It thus renders it unlikely that this disposition can be completely overturned by cultural imitation alone. Moreover, it is seriously mistaken to imagine for even a moment that the spiritual patrons of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Shintoism are men without knowledge, insight, and willpower. Their learning may be different, but their critical faculties are no smaller than ours. They are acutely aware of the deep contrast between what they advocate and the message of the missionaries. In debate these Chinese people give an account of their system of thought exceedingly well, and they are quite cognizant of the weak spots in Christianity as these are expressed practically. Even if they have little effect on European ears, these people know exceedingly well how to speak to the Asian heart. In fact, they are much better at this than our own missionaries will ever be.
The influence of these expert leaders is particularly powerful among the Buddhists, and this influence will not be overthrown unless its power over the people's heart is broken by some deeper motive, such as that wrought by personal conversion. As for the definitely weaker influence of Confucianism and Shintoism, the Chinese and Japanese alike are discovering that the gilded ethical nomism of these systems of thought differs little from the moralism that has supplanted religion in the elite circles of Europe. Consequently, they have little motivation to exchange their legalistic system for modern European moralism. At the World Parliament of Religions it was repeatedly demonstrated that the advocates of these Asian religions receive much warmer sympathy from nominal modernist Christians than from their own orthodox coreligionists.[24] This fear-that sooner or later the struggle between East and West will become mixed with the antithesis between Christianity and paganism-would be as good as finished if we were only dealing with the sorts of people who come together at such conferences. But the fear does and will persist when you take into account that this contest involves not a small circle of scholars and ethicists but the masses; with them, antithetical principles prove time and again to be the point of departure for life itself and for all national development.
Every struggle of this sort for supremacy becomes simultaneously a tug of war between established conditions of life on either side, which forces us back to the historical and ethnological origins of those conditions. And because, time and again, these life conditions have been stamped first of all by religion, the possibility remains that religious antagonism may become mingled in that struggle. If the trunk sways in the gale, the roots will creak, if ever so slightly. Our side should most definitely and very carefully avoid anything that would risk igniting or feeding this unholy fire, but to ignore the embers smoldering beneath the ashes of Eastern life would amount to reckless superficiality. We totally misconstrue the ground of East Asian life if we ignore the intimate cohesion between socio-political relations and religion that persists all over that region. In his work Abendland und Morgenland, Herman Frank rightly pointed out that Islam did not establish this tight connection itself.[25] Rather, Islam owed its triumph to both identifying and wholly satisfying this deep urge within the Eastern spirit.
CROSS AND CRESCENT MEET IN ASIA
AN AMBIGUOUS RELATIONSHIP
The contrast between Europe and Asia in the Levant is of an entirely different character. Although again the discussion involves different races, here the Cross and the Crescent stand over against each other much more concretely and sharply defined. The entire western border of Asia stands, along with Christian Europe, under the sign of Semitism. Regardless of whether the Ottomans all stem from Mongol origins, or the Persians and Afghans from Indo-Germanic background, by adopting Islam the spiritual development of all these peoples came under a prevailing Semitic influence. This applies as well to the 63 million Muslims in South Asia, but to a lesser degree. Among the Sufis in Persia, the ancient Persian spirit is recognizable; so also among the Turks, Berbers, and Kabyls, where we can clearly detect traditional traits to which Islam has adapted. But for all these exceptions, the guiding spirit remains Semitic. Auguste Dide made a similar point in his well-known study, where he emphasized that in order to drive Christianity from its place, one must first undertake a battle against Judaism.[26]
The Jewish and Christian religions were united in their origins, and everybody agrees that Islam belongs there as well. Synagogue, church, and mosque find in Abraham and Moses their historical point of union, while Islam esteems Jesus more highly than do many modern Christians. Within the Semitic sphere, the mutual struggle of Jews, Christians, and Muslims is a family quarrel. As monotheists, the worshipers of Yahweh, of Allah, and of the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ stand united against all pantheists and polytheists. They oppose the lower religious expressions of animism and fetishism on the one hand, just as much as they oppose atheism and agnosticism on the other. When, at Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee, the chief rabbi approached me expressing deep gratitude for the liberty of the Jews in the Netherlands, and the mufti kissed my hand in the presence of the Greek Orthodox kaymakam, I felt more powerfully than ever a sense of the dormant unity of monotheism in its threefold manifestation. That this awareness has been lost is not surprising. For near neighbors, the deep conflicts in life bear the mark of deep bitterness. The Cross of Calvary has created a chasm between Jews and Christians that no one can bridge, while Islam, through its near annihilation of Christian churches in Asia, Egypt, Nubia, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco-and even more by its conquest of the Holy Land-ignited a fire of discord that still burns.
If you restrict your field of vision to Europe and West Asia, profound contradictions come into view. But expand that field to include both East and South Asia and things change entirely. In Europe, America, and West Asia, you will discover three monotheistic religions all sprung forth from the self-same root, all in principle opposed to the naturalistic, polytheistic, and pantheistic systems of religion that East and South Asia have in common with the heart of Africa. Compared to these religions, the differences between Ashkenazic and Sephardic Jews, between Shiite and Sunni Muslims, and among the three Christian traditions-Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Protestant-pale in comparison. Semitism originally set out in entirely different directions from the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, but that does not mean that the Semitic mark of origin common to the three great monotheistic religions is thereby eliminated. This has been less manifest to date because East Asia has been slumbering, and South Asia of little consequence in world affairs. For centuries, hard-pressed Christendom had no enemy other than Islam. Genghis Khan was invoked as a deliverer by Christian kings, and the pope himself negotiated with the Mongols. Anything that promised deliverance from the grip of Islam was necessarily and willingly latched onto.
With the religious strife at the dawn of the Reformation, when many in the Netherlands shouted, "Rather the Turk than the Pope!" Protestants and Muslims began to seek each other out. Thus in the consular archives at Smyrna, I found a seventeenth-century letter from the Admiral Pasha to the Protestants there. It was written in Middle-French and began like this: "Our help is in the name of God! The powerful people and exquisite Christians of the great religion of the Messiah are doubly blessed who teach these things to all republics and lordships, according to Scripture: to renounce all images and the bells of the Mass alike in Flanders and in Holland. Good ruler and most wise Count Maurice: may all your affairs come to a good end and the Republic be renowned for the religion of Jesus.…May God who is the source of all that is good and right strengthen you and provide you with all things necessary." In another connection, when the inhabitants of Moldova began to feel pressure from the Jews, the cry was heard in Romania: "Rather ruled again by the Turks, than bled dry by the Jews!" Now, all this may not represent the highest moral spirit, but it was and remains human nature that when one's very existence is threatened, one seeks relief in turn from the Mongols and Turks. But should monotheism itself be threatened by the rising action in East and South Asia, the same drive for preservation would cause old feuds to be forgotten. Granted, it is hard to get a good read on the emperor of Germany because of his impulsive character. But there is truth to the presumption of a connection between his slogan "People of Europe: preserve your holiest treasures!" and his search for an understanding with the Ottomans.
Should there be sooner or later a struggle for supremacy between Asia and Europe, then more will depend on the attitude of the adherents of Islam than is commonly supposed. What will prevail: their Asiatic origins or their strict monotheistic confession? In India alone they number more than 62 million, while 14 million more are found in Persia, Afghanistan, and Balochistan.[27] In addition to this, Java and Sumatra are home to about 30 million, about the same number as in China itself. The distribution of this Islamic diaspora adds more to it than it detracts. Al-Azhar University in Cairo with its 10,000 pupils is pushing a strong propaganda effort in the East Indies archipelago, above all via Arabic writings translated into Javanese, Malay, and Makassar.[28] In Mecca the pilgrims from India are steadily increasing in number, and at Jaffa I witnessed the first group of Muslim pilgrims from China on their way to worship at Jerusalem. A sense of unity runs strong through Islam, and we cannot exclude the possibility that they will ultimately join us in the battle against pantheism and polytheism.
At the moment, however, the relationship between Europe and the Levant has taken an entirely different form. Here again the economic rivalry between the European powers stands at the fore. Without exception, all Islamic states currently find themselves in a situation of miserable decay. In this respect Turkey leads the pack as it has lost one territory in Europe after another. It may occasionally threaten otherwise, but when you press the ambassadors at Istanbul, they will admit as much. By its posturing it might gain diplomatic benefit from any discord between the European powers and maneuver to delay a decision, but it is resigned to its fate. In Cairo the sultan is still permitted to have a representative of his authority in residence, but the whole country acknowledges-if reluctantly and with some resistance-that Lord Cromer is lord and master.[29] Farther west, on Africa's northern coast, Turkey has conceded every battle just to retain influence in Tripoli. It only nominally possesses Crete. What is even more painful for Istanbul, in Arabia the successful resistance of the Wahhabis against the caliphate of the Ottoman ruler is gradually gathering momentum. Surrounded by adversity, its strained relations in Macedonia and Armenia are not even mentioned. Moreover, all attempts by the Sublime Porte to stem this tide are crossed and thwarted by English and German influences.[30] Both these powers are seeking to set themselves on firmer economic and political ground, each in its own way. The French influence, once so powerfully exerted by its schools, churches, monasteries, and missions, is declining. But the French clergy are still the strongest in Konya, since the large Christian population there provides natural support for the Roman Catholic Church, as is the case for the Russians and the Greek Orthodox church.
In Turkey it would be virtually impossible to convert adherents of Islam to Christianity. Mosque, family, and government are immediately delegated to prevent any attempt in that direction. Conversations I had with French Catholic and Russian Orthodox spiritual leaders revealed an outright aversion on their part to evangelistic efforts among the Muslim students in their own [Christian] schools. The Christian element still present in Asia Minor and Syria is protected by church, school, monastery, and consular power, bolstered by amicable exchange and very high quality staff. Increasing support along these lines has come from Italy as well, particularly among the Franciscan order. But this entire spiritual effort has taken on second-order significance. What might be called pénétration économique has become the number one priority, mostly along the railway line-with the collateral objective of reaching the Persian Gulf. The Baghdad railway has already reached Eregli at the foot of the Taurus Mountains.
THE GEOPOLITICS OF ISLAM
Even though the Ottoman Empire presents the opposite of a picture of strength, it would be a serious miscalculation to regard Islam as fallen from power. What people have repeatedly feared in its summons to holy war is no phantasm. Even with its political power diminished, Islam remains an uncommonly strong spiritual power. The caliphate is far more influential than the sultanate. As sovereign, the sultan rules over only 2½ million Muslim subjects in Europe, 15½ million in Asia and something over 10 million in Africa, for a total of about 28 million. But in his role as caliph, he is honored in the prayers across all of Islam, including 62 million faithful in India alone. Morocco has its own caliphate. Exceptional circumstances in central Africa make many Sunni vacillate. Arabia is attempting to establish a caliphate of its own. But while this schismatic behavior is disruptive to Islam's cohesion, to the great multitude of 180 million Muslims the caliphate of the Ottoman ruler remains undamaged. In the khutbat al-juma, which takes place every Friday morning in the mosque, the caliph is officially acknowledged in the vast majority of cases from the steps of the minbar, located to the right of the mihrab.[31]
Christians in these lands, who understand their circumstances very well, exist in a constant state of fear that another massacre might be inflicted upon them at the slightest signal from Istanbul. The dreadful memories of the horrors enacted at Damascus in 1860 still run deep.[32] I spoke to some men who had been with those who fled into cellars only to meet their death there. Even much later, their faces sported grim expressions as they escorted me to the victims' graves outside Damascus and there depicted for me the scenes of the murders inflicted by the Druze and directed by Ahmed Pasha. Recall too the terrible outburst of fanaticism that marked the uprising against the English in India.[33] I was in Damascus in December 1905, just when the allied fleet took possession of the port of Mytilene; throughout Syria it was feared that the sultan would be tempted to engage in bloody resistance. We heard reports that Aleppo had been given over to widespread slaughter, and when I got to Jerusalem some time later I heard how people there too had quaked in fear. Even in Egypt people know that the simple cry for vengeance would set off the peaceful fellahin [peasants] in wild savagery against the Christians.[34]
The terror that consumes the heart at such a moment is simply overwhelming. Someone who witnessed the Armenian murders in Istanbul recounted for me how one ruffian invaded an Armenian house and struck down three people who were so stiff with fear that they were unable to defend themselves.[35] It is hard to say what stream of passion might pour out over the countries of the Levant if a summons to holy war sounded across Islam at a moment of peak tension. Such outbursts have been partially restrained in the past. But if zealotry were to take on a more general character and burst out simultaneously in all countries, the impact could be horrifying. And if such an eruption coincided with a serious struggle between Europe and Asia on the shores of the Pacific and Central Asia, it could even be dangerous.
The apparent contradiction, then, between the political weakness of the Islamic states and the ever-present danger of a holy war is not really that surprising. The two tenets of Islam, their fatalism and their obligation to promote the faith by the sword, fully explain this apparent contradiction. Once their struggle with the sword could go no further, they quietly settled down in the conquered country and their formerly audacious power subsided. When a stronger power later overtook them and kept them in check, they submitted to this as a fate that was due them. But this fatalistic resignation has never been the last word. They remain certain that the final triumph will be theirs. Their faith teaches that whatever may oppress them at the moment is just a transient condition. With enduring patience they await the moment when that same fate will bring back their old power. And the very instant the trumpet resounds through all Islamic countries to announce the arrival of that long-awaited moment, the long-compressed spring will explode with violent power; the old mandate to defend the faith by the sword will be gladly heard in all corners of Islam. They understand the signs of the times exceedingly well and know to wait for the right moment; they will not be led by rash acts or misguided judgment. But once the cry of vengeance breaks out, the old bloodlust will most certainly awaken and the ancient struggle will be taken up again with lion-like courage. What took place in Armenia will seem to have been but a prelude to the great bloody drama. And if the expectation of the Mahdi finds its embodiment in a lucky adventurer at just this moment, the half-murdered Sudan can testify firsthand of how monstrous inspirations can master foolish people.[36]
Consider this in connection with the developing tension between the European-American and Asian elements in East Asia. It should be obvious to all that the attitude of Muslims in such a struggle between East and West would have an inestimable impact on the outcome. Those in the East are very aware of this and have already sought to make connections with the Bosphorus. From a different angle, there was even a rumor that Japan was considering whether Islam was not the most appropriate religion for that country. Japan continues to insist on sending an ambassador to Istanbul. Note that the revolt of Asians against the English in India gave the signal for the massacre at Damascus in 1860. Is it in and of itself so unthinkable, then, that Islam is observing the robust development of East Asia with ill-concealed joy? And if it were to come to a struggle in the East, would that epochal event not be understood as a clear revelation that fate had turned, that the moment had arrived when the Western yoke would be thrown off and the glory of the Crescent be restored? Then all of Asia would stand against us, and the power arrayed against Europe could assume dangerous proportions.
But this can also go differently. The Semitic-monotheistic bond that-in principle-unites Jews, Christians, and Muslims with one another, could revive Islam's ancient antipathy against all polytheism, thereby preventing the rise of a united Asia. The time may come when having Islam as our monotheistic ally could be worth gold. Could this be a sign that we not let the tradition of the Crusades determine our current course of action but rather, that entirely changed circumstances require an entirely different policy? The upper classes in Istanbul and Cairo already show certain similarities to our Western mores, and the sympathy demonstrated by the Germans has found appreciation among the lower classes. There is so much to gain if we could mutually agree that the opposition between monotheism and polytheism is stronger than that between the Crescent and the Cross. The colonial possessions of the Netherlands would also benefit from this stance. But even if it turns out that, at the hour of decision, Islamic fanaticism proves too strong and turns against us at a moment favorable to them, in that critical hour we would gain moral strength if our conscience could bear witness that the fire of this zealotry had been tempered by Christian forbearance rather than set ablaze by our haughty intolerance.
OUR OPPOSITION TO ISLAM
Let this lead no one to think that the opposition between Christianity and Islam is not one of principle. I align myself least of all with those who, though themselves baptized, sometimes demonstrate a clear and sure advocacy on behalf of Islam. This is only plausible for those who, though still nominal members of the Christian church, have in fact surrendered the essence of the Christian religion. That essence resides in the fact that in Christ the self-revelation of the Supreme Being became a reality, not in nature or symbols, nor even by word or inspiration alone, but through the incarnation in the central personality of our human race, the Son of Man. If religion is the fellowship between God and humanity, then it necessarily follows that in the incarnation of him who was God himself, this fellowship has reached its absolute and most universal character, which cannot be improved upon. The confession of the Trinity tries to give this absolute and perfect character of the Christian religion dogmatic expression. This is the faith Muhammad encountered when he appeared on the scene, though he did not believe it. It must be acknowledged that first the Gnostics, then the Arians, and following them the Nestorians and Monophysites [miaphysites] significantly weakened the meaning of this confession. The stringent monotheism that lay deep in Muhammad's soul was not opposed to Jesus as an eminent prophet sent from God but to the pretension that he was the Son of God. The adulterated representation of the doctrine of the Trinity as tritheistic seemed to him to lead back to polytheism.
It was this perspective, before all else, that Muhammad inscribed on his disciples and set before them every way he could. He argued in the Chutab[37] that the Eternal Being did not procreate and could not have had a son; that, in fact, this entire foundation of the Christian religion represented a falsification of the ancient revelation and constituted a breach with monotheism. There were other reasons for maintaining this position as well. He wanted to maintain his own identity as the supreme and final prophet. Thanks precisely to the incarnation of the Word, Christianity is the highest, most perfect and consummate revelation, preempting any subsequent additional disclosure. Thus if Muhammad wanted to clear the way in order to establish his own position as prophet of a revelation that stood above Christianity, he had to first deprive the Christian religion of its absolute and final character. Nothing prevented Muhammad from granting Jesus the honor of being the highest prophet prior to his own appearance as long as space was reserved for him to establish his own revelation above that of Christ.
Now consider what has happened in the very bosom of the Christian church. A whole series of theologians has stepped forward who-just like Muhammad-no longer have an eye for the absolute character of Christianity. Along with the doctrine of the Trinity they rejected the doctrine of the divine Sonship of Christ. He was only worth honoring as a prophet in Israel or-lower yet-as a religious genius. Not surprisingly, many who came into close contact with Islam in their life or through their studies found much in it to attract them, while the Christian faith rapidly lost its appeal. In their opinion, even Islam accorded Jesus too much honor. Especially in Jerusalem and Bethlehem one perceives how Muslims, in their own way and on many counts, value the sacred tradition of the origins of Christianity much more than does the Modernist school in Europe. It is remarkable how, among some of the most influential men and women of European origin in Istanbul, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and Algeria, you regularly encounter greater sympathy for Islam than for Christianity. With the exception of those associated with Christian missions, you hardly ever find-especially among the Protestants-a confessor of Christ who is passionate to defend his honor. They do not therefore turn to Islam. Only a very few break with their past. As a rule, they have cast aside all positive faith, instead offering more philosophically certain comparisons between Islam and Christianity from a social and moral perspective.
Their sympathy for Islam is strengthened as they encounter mystical and philosophical currents among the Muslims themselves, currents which often assume a pronounced pantheistic character in the world of the dervishes. In these circles Islam is detached from all ritual and ceremony and is reduced to some vague religiosity, expressed in a type of asceticism and a fairly rigid moralism. Many find this attractive. Muhammad the man is stripped of anything supernatural. Ultimately, the religious core that remains is nothing more than an extremely sober, very simple, and, at least by Eastern standards, highly suitable social and moral worldview. This can be mixed in with the fashionable conception of life that many high-ranking Turks bring back with them from Paris and London. In the less serious circles of society, therefore, almost no difference can be detected between the modernized Turk and the modern European. This certainly explains the lack of distinction in practical life between these mutually agreeable approaches. Any surviving difference is diminished even further by the European education given the daughters of high-ranking Muslims; in the home they move about in the company of gentlemen as freely as do women from nominally Christian homes.
The amount of self-deception lurking within this high ethical conception of Islam is no secret to anyone who has spent some time in the East. No doubt Muhammad made serious attempts to halt the Eastern and later Semitic cultures' moral decline in the sexual realm. Some Gnostic sects, especially the Manicheans, had shown the dreadful way in which sexual behavior could penetrate into the holy sacraments of the Christian religion. With the Catharists this went further, and the remains of these satanic orgies in the black-and-white mass that still creeps around Europe surely provide conclusive evidence of the deadly peril which both Eastern and later Babylonian-Semitic degeneration on this particular point continually poses to the West. Muhammad himself was apparently terrified of this danger; his social and ethical views of marriage were undoubtedly an attempt to block this menace. But between this generous acknowledgement and the assertion that morality has thus reached a higher level than in Europe lies the reality of practice-at least in the sexual realm. Abstinence from wine and strong drink has worked very well, in and of itself. Whoever compares the fellahin in Egypt to the drink-besotted masses of our large cities can hardly be faulted for the impression that the former place higher, physically. In terms of sexual behavior, however, the entire Levant is at a much lower level than Europe. Even though one finds, in Europe, all manner of sexual sin in certain circles of the larger cities, sexual behavior across the broad ranks of our society occupies a much higher moral ground than it ever has in Asia.
This healthy core of civil life is precisely what is missing in the East. Polygamy-which encourages an easy loosening of the marriage bond, widespread infidelity, prostitution, and even unnatural prostitution-corrupts social relations. The race of geishas exists here too, and Pashas openly harbor the objects of their pederasty in their palaces without compromise to their public reputation. Even in the villages one finds prostitutes-both natural and unnatural-dangling their lures. We can acknowledge Muhammad's serious intent to address this immorality. But it would be folly to imagine that his social-ethical system could have forestalled the inherent Asian tendency to sexual orgies better than the Christian religion would have guarded against sexual danger. On the whole, native Christians, whether Armenian, Greek, Franks, or Copts, compare quite favorably within their Muslim environment. Even with all the sexual evil churning in Europe and the United States, there is no question that in this realm Christian countries far outdistance those of Islam, as long as we focus on all the burghers and country folk and do not restrict our comparison exclusively to some fashionable circles in the big cities. We conclude, therefore, that Islam stands with us in our common opposition to Asian pantheism and polytheism. But in the social and moral realm, it is quite clear that, of the three monotheistic religions, Judaism and Christianity have reached a much higher pinnacle than has Islam.
APPRECIATING ISLAM AND ASIA
But one thing must never be lost to our view: Europe did not reach this elevated position on its own but owes it to Asia. Almost without exception, all the seeds of higher development blew into Europe from Asia, and it is most definitely the Semitic peoples to whom Europe owes the greatest debt-and has owed for a long time. The ancient prophecy that Japheth would dwell in the tents of Shem and be blessed by him [Gen 9:27] has become impossible to show in any particulars, either genealogically or ethnologically. But history irrefutably demonstrates that all Europe's movement to higher development is owed to Asia, most decidedly to the Semites. Neither Egypt nor Greece nor Rome would have become what they were without Asia. In particular, monotheism, in which the deepest root of all higher culture resides, came to us from the Semitic world, even as the Christian religion came to us from the Levant. We can stipulate that Asia became ever less able to bring these seeds of higher development to full bloom on its own. That happened first, on almost every point, in the European world. Yet Europe on its own brought forth almost nothing. These seeds steadily blew in from the East, but it was the richly adaptive European spirit that quested to bring these Asian influences to a much higher level than the Asian spirit itself aspired to do. Especially in the intellectual and technical areas Asia lags far behind. Europe did not come into particularly fruitful contact with Chinese, Japanese, or Indian development. Even Persia had little influence. What it absorbed came almost exclusively from West Asia.
With this historical data before us it very much becomes the question whether Europe is not misguided to look down upon the Levant from its lofty position and to imagine that its own economic superiority can be applied to bring about full assimilation. There is no question that, economically speaking, there is a significant amount that can be done in the Levant. And it is already evident in Egypt what a powerful economic renewal can happen in a relatively short period of time under European influence. For lack of the necessary government support, the ancient prosperity of Asia Minor, Syria, and Palestine has sunk to such low levels that the fields are white for harvest. However, one must not infer from this that there are regions in the Levant where economic prosperity cannot advance without the introduction of our European development, as is the case in Africa. Independent culture once flourished across all these lands far out beyond the Tigris and the Euphrates. Prosperity and higher development once blossomed successively under polytheistic, Byzantine, and Islamic guidance. Giant ruins still stand as their monuments. Certainly it was a different type of development, one of lower social standing with less technical expertise. But there was prosperity before decadence set in along with great artistic wealth and a flourishing scholarship.
This culture was destroyed by the Mongol raids, the wars between Islam and Christendom, the endless civil wars among the vassals, the weakening of the once proud Arabic mind under Turkish sovereignty, and not least, the lack of sound government policy, especially in Turkey. Turkey is neither a kingdom nor a people as we understand those concepts; thus there is no talk of a "national existence." To be sure, there is a community of faith and there is the authority of the prevailing tribe by virtue of its military supremacy. But there is no talk of a res publica, of an organic, unified nationhood. Under such management no state can aspire to an independent defense of its interests. Numerous regions have no other reason for existence than to legitimate their administration and strengthen their military over against outside forces. On top of that, Islam possesses neither a hierarchy nor an interwoven organization to serve as a unifying force for its adherents. In Asia as well as along the north coast of Africa and in Spain, it has always experienced the bitter consequences of this lack of a unifying bond. Such splintering has worked ceaselessly down through all ages. New pretenders to authority are constantly arising; even a high veneration for the descendants of the great prophet-which seemed to promise unity-has never brought anything but divisiveness and schism.
This is precisely why the inner spiritual life of Islam shines so brightly. Without a priestly order, and without what we would call religious organization, Islam nevertheless has managed to maintain a spiritual unity from beyond the Himalayas to the heart of Africa. All kinds of schools-mystical, ascetic, rationalistic-have constantly threatened to undermine that unity, most recently the Bábi movement and the Mahdis in Sudan.[38] But even though the conflict between the Shiites and the Sunnis remains unresolved, and though the Sufis (especially in the dervish orders) undermine orthodox Islam, the sense of togetherness stands firm. All that belongs to Islam forms one mighty, organic complex that is much more aware of its spiritual unity than is the case among the multitude of Christian churches.
Precisely because the Muslim does not rely on clergy and is not supported by a single, all-encompassing organization, he seeks his strength in personal sentiment and in personally upholding a bond that connects all Muslims to the tradition of Muhammad. The Protestant distinction from the Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches-that the lower role of clergy compels a more personally self-standing devotion-is even stronger with Muslims, since organizationally Islam is considerably weaker than Protestantism. This is connected to the Qur'an's greater authority over all of life: social, judicial, and even political. The Qur'an's law-orientation is, more than Christian principle with us, the regulative thread woven through all of life. It thus remains at the forefront of their consciousness. Muslims do not have separate social, religious, and political spheres; rather, all of life is bound together in one Qur'anic sphere, and this life relies on personal love for a living tradition.
If one were to expose such a people to our European economic development and, especially, colonize them under European leadership, undoubtedly they would see greater prosperity and a riper development. But unless the East assimilates this higher economic development into its own form, the results will be disappointing. The people of Islam do not possess the assimilative capacity of the Japanese. They are not predisposed to a life of voluntary association and combining forces. While government should exercise its high calling to compensate for this deficiency, there is no prospect of this happening under the Turkish regime. Under the lead of a different government and through a robust program of colonization as once went forth from Greece to the East, perhaps the goals people set for themselves could be achieved, but this would ultimately entail exploitation and displacement, which is quite distinct from an assimilation of Islam by a European element.
It would be different if one were able to simultaneously guide the Muslim from the Qur'an to the gospel since this would create a fundamental alteration of heart and mind. But in light of all the evidence, and with the Islamic world in Asia being virtually sealed off from all Christian evangelism, we must acknowledge that there is no reason to hope for a Europeanization of the Levant. We must give up the notion that we have everything to bring to the East and nothing to receive. Relations between East and West will begin to heal if the particular gifts of each side are continually brought into account. The Easterner lacks what we possess but, conversely, can make up for our deficiencies. We represent activism, determination, the tireless quest. We stop at nothing, are never satisfied with our achievements, and are always striving for improvement. To that must be added our ceaseless attempts to intellectually pierce through everything that comes our way, to bring the unconscious into consciousness, to unveil every secret thing. By mind and hand we impose ourselves on nature so as to understand and subject it to our bidding.
In all this the Easterner comes up short. On the other hand, he exudes a rich inner spirit that facilitates deep empathy and calmly ponders things; the mysteries of the heart are allowed to unfold gently-hence his tranquil life, imperturbable calm, and content state of mind. With him a different part of being has come to development, but he is no less advanced for all that. The lower class in the Levant, in particular, exists on a higher plane rather than a lower. The Asian is well mannered, almost ceremonial in form. He rarely stands upright but prefers to squat down when he is with others in the street. They quietly look each other in the eye and discuss nature, politics, and their intimate life. Their facial expression is unmarred by drink or the sharp lines of dissatisfaction with their lot. The Muslim laughs more and cries less. He does not overwhelm nature for the mysteries of its powers and workings but understands its symbolic expression. He understands life more figuratively; he has a sense of the mysterious, the sublime, and the infinite. A mystical aura surrounds his whole being and, so long as his passions (which can be terrible) are not stirred up, he is most friendly, engaging, hospitable, and extremely polite. He is a sort of gentleman and would not cause you the least pain or ever contradict you.
When religion comes into play, his mind is open to the mystery of the infinite, which he feels quite differently than a Westerner can with the dialectics of theology. He finds himself, thanks to his way of life, less unhappy. Sober by nature, he is mostly out on the street and therefore modest in his housing demands. His wardrobe changes little; he has few needs. Even though he suffers from a lack of justice-such as it is-and from defective government, his tranquility remains undisturbed. He delights in sitting quietly, musing, pondering, and chatting. And if you ask how human development might nonetheless bend toward happiness amid what in so many ways are irredeemable circumstances, the answer is to be found with the Easterner. It will not be found in the West.
A side of human life has ripened in the East that has not happened with most of us, something for which no excitement or nervous energy can compensate. A harmonious development of heart, head, and hand does not exist on either side. Only if we unite the unique development of the Easterner with our Western civilization will a fuller, higher harmony come into reach. A haughty spirit eludes him and is unbecoming for us. We are always poor on one side and rich on the other, and our powers will come to their highest development only when we complement each other. Go out to meet the Easterner with this kind of conviction, showing no superiority but rather an openness to the riches of his state of mind, and everything within him will be disclosed. Only when Europe and the Middle East trade their respective spiritual treasures in the Levant will we be able to speak of complementary growth. Those who only have an eye for railways and markets will lament, too late, that they have missed the essential nature of the Easterner.
In the past, all our spiritual wealth came to us from Asia. Today we enter the Levant with a greatly superior intellectual, economic, and technical capability. But intellect, economics, and technology do not make a human being or reach our deeper self. In this respect, the Easterner's much deeper emotional life makes him richer than we. Of course the Turks, being of Mongolian origin, come in second here; yet, by adopting Islam, they came under noticeable Semitic influence, and their trade and intermingling with the population of the Near East have also changed their nature significantly. Moreover, the Turkish race is by far the minority here. It is the Semites, not they, who form the core of the population in the Middle East, and in them [the Semites] there still abides a treasure of warmth that should be appreciated, respected and not suppressed-a warmth that can be of notable benefit to us in our chillier existence. This is especially so for those people who bear the heaviest of life's burdens. Nothing is done in either the Middle East or the entire world for the lowest person. And yet it is precisely this lowest person who feels less unhappy, wears a more cheerful countenance, and laughs and sings much more than the gloomy, self-serving worker in our Western countries. To imagine that we in the West hold everything needed for the happiness of the Middle East is a proud delusion. It would be criminal to set ourselves up to cheat them out of the richness of their heart. The Westerner would do the Easterner in the Levant well by helping him advance economically. But never invade his warmer and happier state of mind with your intellectual unrest.
ISLAM AND THE LIBERATION OF ASIA
Naturally, there is no question of offering some of our Christian religion to Islam. The West can only pursue a higher harmony with the East in the area of ethnological psychology. The stimulus toward such rapprochement will be spontaneous once the conflict between monotheism and polytheism comes into the foreground; the Asian monotheist will fraternize with his European counterpart from the very outset. As I mentioned earlier, the Eastern policy of the German emperor seems to me to be calculated with this in mind. In particular, honoring Saladin by placing a memorial at his tomb in Damascus won him the sympathy of the Muslims. The emperor's approach to the people of the Levant is highly appreciated by all Muslims, even the lowest classes. And not only the Germans-the English too have recently demonstrated a similar noticeable concern, especially in the Near East.
In the recently published Revue du monde Musulman you will find two articles on this matter that have earned attention, the first entitled "Le mouvement Swadêçî" and the second "Aga Khan." Swadêçî literally means "his own country," and this article draws the reader's attention to an economic movement that proposes a boycott of all imported goods into the Indies. This movement was launched at Chandannagar, in French-India, with a gathering of 10,000 people. They marched through the streets while singing their Marseillaise, the so-called "Bande mataram." Within two weeks the Chandannagar meeting was followed up by 167 other equally well-attended gatherings, so that a total of about 650,000 people have cheered the Swadêçî on. In the bazaars of Allahabad and Dhaka warnings were posted against anyone who might still want to buy European goods. Houses that once sold 1,000 bales of cotton goods saw their annual sales decline to just 100. At one point the enthusiasm ran so high that a merchant in European wares set his own inventory ablaze and 100,000 rupees went up in flames.[39]
Quite apart from the specific Swadêçî matter, it became apparent at the Indian Congress held under the leadership of Naoroji in Calcutta on November 6, 1906, that a determined endeavor was underway to obtain for India an autonomy similar to that of Canada and Australia.[40] As British citizens they claimed entitlement to the same unrestricted freedoms that the English enjoy in Great Britain. The principle that the tax-payer must also be tax-layer was one they wished to see fully applied in their land. Indeed, they demanded this and further desired to see Hindus and Muslims come together to stand up for their rights. With this looming danger of Hindu attempts to regain self-governance, the English successfully broke the strength of the Swadêçî, at least for the time being, by securing the loyal help of India's 63 million Muslims. The division of Bengal into two provinces has served this cause particularly well. In a unified Bengal, Muslims were far outnumbered. In the now-partitioned and self-governing area they form the majority. And while in unified Bengal almost all official positions were filled by Hindus, in the partitioned area these lucrative and influential posts are now accruing to Muslims. The viceroy also decided henceforth to organize separate regiments for Muslims under their own officers. Furthermore, 50,000 rupees were provided to Islamic schools. Scholarships were established at the University of Calcutta. Strict rules governing disease in the harem were mitigated. The prohibition against making pilgrimage to Mecca for the duration of the epidemic was significantly amended, provided people sailed from Chittagong rather than Bombay.[41] All these efforts were successful in gaining the sympathy of the Muslims; their noisy welcome at the crown prince's arrival in India was evidence enough of their affection for English rule.[42]
This policy on the English side is not entirely unconnected with the political strategy they have pursued in Egypt and Arabia, aiming to turn the Arabic tumult among the Wahhabis against the Turkish element. This is intended to loosen the bond between these 85 million Muslims and the caliphate of the sultan. Turkey is attempting to counteract this possibility by constructing a railway from Damascus to Mecca, which is already completed to within 300 kilometers of Medina. But it remains to be seen whether, with some 60 million Indians won over by this [British] action, the caliphate in Istanbul will be able to maintain an undiminished spiritual influence in its southern provinces.
In this respect, the new movement introduced among the Muslims in South Asia under the leadership of Aga Khan is significant. The Aga Khan is the spiritual head of the so-called Khojas, a sect of Islam that is mixed with strong Buddhist elements and has been teaching the transmigration of souls for years already. They consider the Kalami Pir and Ali as more authoritative than the Qur'an and Muhammad, respectively.[43] Found all over India and in parts of Persia and Turkestan, they must be about a million and a half strong. Aga Khan is a very rich man who draws tribute to the tune of 500,000 francs from his adherents. Not only is he the head of their organization, he is also recognized as a descendant of Fatima and, furthermore, is related to the Shah of Persia. His name has even been considered for the founding of a new caliphate. In addition, this imam of the Khojas is a polished man who has traveled throughout Europe, writes fluently in English and French, and has had articles published in the best English reviews. His palace, the Aga Hall at Mazgaon in Bombay, serves as the center of a circle of high-ranking individuals. Aga Khan has been elected chairman of a delegation of 36 members that intends to establish an official connection with the Indian government and prepare an organization of all Muslims in India. The viceroy received him with great honor, and the Prince of Wales has been numbered among his guests. The Times itself acknowledged that the manner in which Aga Khan was received was highly significant because it acknowledged that Muslims constitute a nation within a nation and a state within a state.
Aga Khan and his followers have lofty goals in view. In 1903 he wrote: "Muslim youth must go to Europe to study. The university at Aligarh must evolve in such a way as to be competitive with the universities of Berlin, Oxford, Leipzig and Paris. We must send out a light that shines on all Muslims inside of India and out, which will announce to the entire world our love for law and for truth and for what the purity of our highly regarded faith can accomplish." He wants to incorporate European development into Islam, thereby ensuring Islam's future triumph. So far this idea has been greeted enthusiastically at all sorts of meetings, as abundant in attendance (30,000 in Dhaka alone) as in the large sums of money that wealthy merchants have committed toward the realization of the plan. Only time will tell whether or not, as this movement goes forward, the lower classes will mount a challenge to its innovations. Of the 63 million Muslims, this movement has thus far captured less than one million. But the action is in itself remarkable, and Le Chatelier in his study of Aga Khan correctly asserts that its appearance is one aspect of the remarkable general awakening that is manifesting itself in all parts of the Asian hemisphere and which gives equal cause for surprise and concern.[44]
For the moment, and in connection to its plans in Arabia, England is using this action to gain a firmer foothold in the Muslim world. Here again we see how deference wins hearts. Muslims have always resented being treated as inferior. When the Prince of Wales came to Calcutta and addressed the Muslims there kindly, as equals, an elderly man in the crowd burst into tears, thanking Allah that a prince from Great Britain had finally appeared who treated people like him as human beings. For all that German and English policies in the Muslim world may be pursuing entirely different ends, in one thing they are alike. Both are lending a friendlier character to the relationship between Christianity and Islam, something that will not prove unimportant in the later development of the Asian question.
For now it must definitely be said that Muslims currently feel drawn to Japan by some magnetic force; in Japan's power they foresee a brighter future for Islam. They always do so, however, with much prayer and great anticipation that the Japanese will come over to Islam. To rely on a pagan Japan vis-à-vis a Christian Europe is untenable; Japan must first convert to Islam. There are those who already imagine the Mikado to be the future caliph; then the final victory of Islam will be at the door. Muslims fatalistically accept the current supremacy of Europe. But this fatalism has never dissuaded them from believing that their final triumph is sure. Sooner or later the moment will come when an unforeseen event will, as if by magic, reverse their fortunes. Many are wondering, even now, whether the Japanese victory over Russia does not represent that epochal event. It left all of Asia-Chinese, Mongol, Hindu, and Arab-with the impression that a new sun had arisen in the Land of the Rising Sun, casting its light over all the Arab nations. Muslims have been unable to shake this impression. Already students are traveling from India to Tokyo as they once did to Oxford and Berlin, and foundations have been formed to ensure that young men of talent are guaranteed free travel to, and lodging in, Japan.
In Roûzgâr, an Indian magazine, I read that 53 sons of rich Indian Hindu families had left for Japan. Upon his return from Japan after completing his course of study, a Muslim Indian man, Muhammad Shafi, reported on his experience and added that he has founded a technical school and journal at Lyallpur to bring the blessings of Japan to the heart of India. A Muslim sheikh has written: "If Japan wants to become a sovereign state and transform Asia into a world-dominating continent, this double goal will be achieved only by accepting our blessed Islam."[45] In Moeayyad, the well-known anti-British organ of Cairo, the editor ventured into somewhat riskier speculation, writing that "England with more than 60 million Muslims [in India] is apprehensive about Japan's conversion to Islam. Defeated Russia is beginning to approach England while France is an ally of both. The Crimean War is forgotten and Turkey now finds itself opposed to these three powers. But a Muslim Japan would change Islamic politics at the root." In fact, the work has already begun. On the authority of the Ikdam of February 26, 1906, Mr. F. Farjenel, from whose article in the already-mentioned Revue I obtained these details, claims that Sheikh Rahim ud Din of Delhi has composed an English-language propaganda pamphlet of which hundreds of thousands of copies have been sent to Japan.[46] Other Indian scholars, among them Dr. Abdul Hakim Khan, Mawlawi Ashraf Khan,[47] and others, have not only sent their propaganda literature to Japan, but are prepared to send their sons there as well. According to the Ikdam of March 30, a Muslim society decided to send one of their most learned men, San Afraz Hosein Khan,[48] to Japan to organize conferences about Islam all over and to establish 25 mosques there with the association's funds. His first conference, at Nagasaki, drew an audience of 3,000. He was similarly successful in Kobe, and in Tokyo a cabinet minister granted him an audience that lasted four hours. The Indian Muslim's example was soon followed in Egypt when a mission heading for Japan departed from Cairo under the leadership of Ali Ahmed el Girgawi. Meanwhile, plans are being developed to elevate the University of al-Azhar to a higher intellectual plane in preparation for an influx of Japanese students. Two accomplished scholars from Persia have left for Japan; particularly noteworthy is Fakhr al-Islam, reputed to be a former Christian teacher.
It hardly needs to be said that the Japanese government is keeping a sharp eye on this whole movement. It owes its rise not least to the expert agents it sent out from whose reports it has kept current on developments in every corner of the Western world. In addition to keeping tabs on Europe and the United States, it is watching China, Indochina, Thailand, India, the Archipelago, Persia, Afghanistan, Egypt, and Turkey with at least equal interest. So many agents were sent to China, and so many newspapers were established there, that the government in Beijing was compelled to voice a mild protest. A learned Japanese man, Mr. Kenjin Thokokumi, appeared in Istanbul, and Nakamoura founded a trading house there. Another scholar from Tokyo named Dr. Lotide undertook a journey across India to advertise the power and greatness of Japan, while a third expert, named Dr. Sagaki Kiohi, traveled across Tibet and Central Asia to Calcutta with a similar goal.
Although little seems to have materialized of a great conference planned in Japan, preparations for the event were strongly encouraged by Muslims everywhere; the Turkish agent in Java, Rasim Bey, likewise submitted written contributions. But even though the collective imagination on the part of Japan and of Muslims in various countries far outpaces the reality, it is pretty well established that the Japanese national sensibility is already identifying with that of the Asian. Japan is welcomed throughout Asia as the power bearing the promise of Asia's liberation. Especially in the Muslim world, including its Russian segment, Japan is greeted as its future liberator. To that end, it is paramount that Japan be convinced of the truth of Islam. Mr. Farjenel's observations are apposite: "Having been led to expect a dramatic turn, we are seeing only a prologue that promises everything without delivering anything."[49] But this much is obvious: the Muslim world is thinking much more of cooperation with Japan than of opposition to it. It does the Muslim honor that he cannot think of an association with Japan, for now, without Japan's conversion to Islam. Thus, no plans are in place for the likely event that Japan will persist in its own forms of religion.
CONCLUSION: THE RISK WE RUN
We cannot dismiss the possibility that Islam considers the giant struggle between Europe and Asia as but the prelude to a more critical battle between its monotheism and polytheism. But for now it remains the case that animosity against the Christian powers is the predominant Muslim mood, and that Europe, with its harsh treatment of the Muslim, is diminishing its opportunities for the future. At the moment Muslims are still in a state of political despondency, so courtesy and kindness can soften their mood considerably. But a Pan-Islamic activism is growing among them, out to the far reaches of the north coast of Africa, that overshadows all sectarian differences, quickening hopes that the power of the Crescent will be restored. Even in Morocco, which has its own caliphate, the movement is noticeable. Inevitably, this activism will turn first against the European powers that hold dominion in Islamic lands.
Thus, much will have to change before the monotheism of Islam will set itself against Asian polytheism. India and Southeast Asia, the Archipelago, the Philippines, China, and Manchuria all feel pressure from the same Christian powers that Islam confronts in the Levant. At the level of deepest convictions, the unity of antipathy often plays more strongly than the unity of sympathy. The risk facing Europe and the United States, that at any given moment they will be confronted by both Islam and Asia, is far from imaginary. This danger only increases so long as Muslims in the Levant feel that Europe is committing entirely unwarranted violence to the voice of their conscience with the policy of peaceful penetration. So long as European powers, in their increasingly fierce competition with each other, recklessly pursue economic profits and expansion of their political authority, imposing our European mindset upon the residents of the Levant, the hatred of Christians will not diminish but grow, and the gulf that separates us from Islam will steadily widen.
Whatever warmth of spirit Europe does possess, particularly among its more mystical believers, is owed to neither its intellectualism nor its artistic development but to the spiritual glow that came to us from Semitic Palestine. Christ is from Israel and not from Europe. Precisely for this reason we should have greater insight into the Semitic spirituality of Muslims in the Levant, appreciate it deeply, and restrain our condescension as we consider where they are our superior. Let us reach for the higher ideal of enriching the East with our intellectual, technical, and artistic treasures while, in turn, warming our mentality, withered by skepticism, with their more intensive inner life. And so may a higher harmony of life emerge as the spirits of East and West are brought into a better balance and unity.
There is also a hint here for our archipelago. The Javanese, given what they pick up from European influences on their island, will not rise to any higher religion or morality than that of their native spirituality, especially since the Europeans there are often so arrogant. Only Christian missions instill a sense of moral reverence, but they are much too small to exert much influence over the entire archipelago. And so things continue to simmer. When, sooner or later, a power struggle erupts between Europe and Asia, no place will be as threatened as our archipelago. We lie wide open on all sides, and the European presence is so small: fewer than 77,000 Europeans, compared to more than 30 million natives. Add to that 540,000 Chinese who certainly would not side with us if the glory of Asia were at stake. It is true that Islam's roots in the archipelago are not nearly as deep as in the Levant. The Hindu substratum is still very obvious in Java, and while the majority of the population is not overly zealous, we should not forget that the pilgrims who return from Mecca as hajjis are. The literature coming out of Cairo feeds a steady flow of propaganda, while the sultan of Turkey is training young Javanese at his military school-they, like the graduates of al-Azhar University, will soon return to the archipelago. Even if an insurmountable danger were not readily to arise from that source, the moment the call of "Asia for the Asians" were to sound forth, the Asians in our archipelago will awaken. The Asian sense of self-worth over against the Europeans also lies deep in the heart of the native leaders in our archipelago. We would do well, therefore, not to build on earlier assumptions. All Europe must be fully aware of the danger threatening us from an awakened Asia. Today, as never before, the adage is acutely relevant: prévoir c'est gouverner ["to foresee is to govern"]. And this is true not only for us but for all the European authorities that exercise power in Asia.
November 30, 1906
聚合中文网 阅读好时光 www.juhezwn.com
小提示:漏章、缺章、错字过多试试导航栏右上角的源