For a home that is not gained,
I have spent yet nothing bought,
Have laboured but not attained;
My pride strove to mount and grow,
And hath but dwindled down;
My love sought love, and lo!
Hath not attained its crown.
CHRISTINA ROSSETTI, 'I WILL LIFT UP MINE EYES UNTO THE HILLS'
There was of course no sign of Reg Greer in Queensland, even though I had stopped asking after him by name and begun using a photograph. 'Do you know this man?' I wrote on the back of a picture of him taken not long after the war, in a Prince of Wales tweed suit, holding a cigarette with the burning end cupped in his palm. I read somewhere that men who have been in prison smoke in this furtive way. People suggested that I send the picture to the Stockmen's Hall of Fame, where it would come to the attention of all and any who had handled cattle or sheep in the Australian outback, but I spared myself this embarrassment. Instead I wandered off on a strange pilgrimage to Greer territories, in southern Queensland, in far inland New South Wales, dropping down through the wine growing district to Rutherglen and across to the coast at Eden.
The Eden Greers were part of a network that had spread out from Bombala in the Kosciusko High Plains. I went from the Southern Ocean up over the Great Dividing Range through fifty miles of state forest, where the bees worked loudly in the gum-blossom. Gum-blossom is not like other blossom. For one thing it has no petals, but only a froth of stamens like a star-burst from the rim of the calyx. Those stamens can be any shade from the milkiest cream to arterial or even venous red, and always the green of the leaves is the perfect complement, black green to foil mother-of-pearl pink, blue-grey green for the corals and mahogany green for the brightest reds. You may see eucalypts growing all over the world, but you will not see these flowering mountain gums anywhere but in their own land.
Eucalypts cover most of northern Portugal and carpet the hills of Minas Gerais in Brazil, where they provide charcoal for the smelters; eucalypts provide all the firewood that is left in northern Ethiopia; eucalypts are grown in reafforestation schemes all over India; eucalypts shade the swimming pools in Beverly Hills. Cheap, fast-growing and inedible, eucalypts are exacting Australia's revenge for the despoliation and corruption of her territory. As fast as the human inhabitants can chop them down, the single species favoured for government forestry schemes coppice and creep on until miles and miles are covered with nothing but them. They drive out all native species and establish a dreary monoculture of one grey green in which the native creatures can find nothing to like.
The fact that Ethiopia has a fixed capital is directly due to Eucalyptus globulus. The Emperors had been in the habit of moving on when their huge entourage had exhausted local supplies of firewood. A Frenchman, Mondon Vidaye, suggested to Emperor Menilek that he could establish a permanent court at Addis Ababa if he planted Eucalyptus globulus, the Blue Gum, which would coppice faster than his entourage could use it up. He did not explain that in order to grow so fast Eucalyptus globulus uses up all the moisture in the fragile topsoil. It has now lost its place as tree of choice for reafforestation schemes, too late to save the landscape. For many miles in all directions radiating from Addis Ababa the hills are dressed in uniform drab military green. The gums are easy to propagate; people in desperate need of firewood are increasing the area under eucalypts, despite government policy. The native forest has been driven out forever; in place of hundreds of species there is now one, that every year eats up more hectares, dries out more topsoil and accelerates the disintegration of the Ethiopian ecology.
In the Kosciusko High Plains a single eucalypt species does not march like a cloned army over the slopes. The species that grow on a western slope are quite different from those that face them on an eastern slope; the species that grow at the bottom of the ravine are quite different to the ones that defy the winds on the ridges. The species that grow in sand are different from those growing on rock or in mud. There are tall gums, squat gums, straight gums, contorted gums, gums with smooth silver trunks, gums with cragged coats of iron grey, paper barks, and gums with boles redder than blood. Beneath the trees the papery Helichrysums glisten like blobs of fresh chrome-yellow paint.
I passed a wombat, who had foolishly desired something on the other side of the good metalled road, which is a short cut to the white beaches that stretch for two hundred miles along the Gippsland coast. Occasionally a battered old gas guzzler, crammed with naked boys and piled high with surfboards, barrelled past me, bouncing from side to side as it hit the capricious camber which is a feature of Australian road building. The wombat, who travels at half a mile an hour, never had a chance.
For more than an hour I tooled along the switchback road, eating nectarines and gaping into the scribbles and scrolls of bush. Over-arching branches broke the glare of the white summer sky to a soft dappled gloom that hummed and buzzed and rustled with activity. Then the car climbed the last slope and shot out on to the plateau. I stood on the brakes, blinded by sun-dazzle.
The tangled coat of vegetation was gone, torn off, wrenched out, burnt off, grubbed out. The blunt peaks of the ancient hills of the Great Dividing Range were nude; the dimples and groins between them were open to the sky, as obscene as shaven crotches. The curves of the exposed earth were criss-crossed with linear scarifications where some giant machine had gashed the ground into long cicatrices pimpled with green. The raised dots in this obscene tattoo were hundreds of thousands of shiny infant trees. I knew their parents well; they were millions of descendants of the Pinus radiata that can be seen in vast tracts of dead black-green at Cape Otway, battening on the rains that blow year in year out from Antarctica.
At Myrtleford during the Depression gangs of men were employed in a beneficent public works project to rip out the native hardwoods that clothe the Australian alps and replace them with commercially valuable timber. Into the exposed earth they stuck Pinus radiata. The creatures that fed on the eucalypt and its berries withdrew before the rage of the loggers. They did not venture into the plantations where the sun blazed down and the winds tore and the rain dug. The pines grew, tall and very close together. Under their sparse black branches the fallen needles accumulated but nothing grew in the dry darkness. Even the spiders moved on, for where there is no nectar and no pollen no bugs fly.
This field of blood, one of many scattered around south-eastern Australia, is called Rockton. Between the scarified squares, yellow roads had been gashed out. There are no weeds, no birds, just wheel tracks and the huge indifferent sky, which stretched down below eye level on every side. Beside the naked hectares stood hectares clothed in six feet of bottle green, and hectares clothed in twelve feet of greenish black. As the Holden scuttled down the creases of the hills, the sky line would show pinked like a saw blade against the white sky. They say that before the graziers tore off the natural vegetation so that Australia could live on the sheep's back, there was no frost in these parts. Orchids lived safe in the forest and bees worked all the year round.
Stupefied I asked myself why no native timber had been found for commercial use. Perhaps if we grew some natives in places like Rockton the environment would not die so utterly. Perhaps then there would be flowers in the forest and honey. Stupid of me. Of course the native trees would be accompanied by creepers and undergrowth and the creatures who dwell in forests. Loggers do not want triple canopy. They want uniform, upright, Teutonic trees that grow fast and straight and do as they are told. Native trees like native people do not understand or care for the profit motive. They are not clean and tidy. They drop their bark and bleed rich gums and harbour bees and termites and small furry things that sleep all day and carouse all night. Loggers want tall, fast-growing straight-grained trees that will neither blunt their axes, nor split. As I crept out of this sad place with its blind regiments of foreign trees growing desperately towards the light so that in their finest hour they could be chipped, I wondered why the Aborigines did not bring their firesticks and burn the lot.
The primary purpose of these dreary plantations of Monterey pines is to provide the newsprint for the worst newspapers in the world. My father's old boss, Sir Keith Murdoch, pioneered their development. The woodchip industry does not demand Monterey pine evidently, for the Japanese firm of Harris Daishowa would be perfectly happy to clear fell three million hectares of Australian forest, wildflowers, wombats and all. So happy are they at the prospect they gave $10,000 donations to the electoral campaigns of both sides at the last election. When the Labor government decided to declare the forest a World Heritage area, the Japanese asked for their money back, which was embarrassing because the ALP president had forgotten to declare the gift, as required by law.
I found my Greer, the founder of a dynasty of boat-builders, fishermen and poor farmers, resting in Bombala graveyard under a sober white marble stone. I did not find a stone that said 'Emma Rachel, beloved wife of Robert Greer' or any other Greer memorial. I did find bright pink oxalis, and pinker bell-bine. I found Lychnis coronaria in both kinds, the white-flowered and the magenta. I found the orange pimpernel and Soft Urospermum that made a clock as big as a grapefruit. There were two kinds of verbena, the kind called Paterson's Curse which has ruined great tracts of grazing lands, and the creeping kind that makes purple mile after mile of central and western New South Wales and southern Queensland. Only a handful of native plants grew in that upland meadow. Their clear china blue seemed almost grey among the bright stars of the European flowers, hot yellow, magenta and purple as they were. My Greer had left no descendants in Bombala, but the escapees from his wife's flower garden had made the entire district their own for ever more.
In the Australian alps I found dells filled with lupins, bearing huge panicles loaded with perfect flowers that would win prizes at Chelsea, just as European girls naturalised in Australia have won the Miss World Competition. In other dells I found Martagon lilies. These were welcome immigrants, perhaps, but the sweetbriars, blackberries, gorse and teasel that came with them have ruined thousands of miles of parkland.
In all the cemeteries I visited in this demented pilgrimage I saw the initial invasion re-enacted as the flowers planted on the graves escaped through the railings and took off. In Maldon cemetery, where two separate Greer strains are buried, some of the bereaved had planted spindly little cypresses inside the ornamental railings of their family plots. The people who planted them are long gone and buried otherwheres, but the cypresses have grown to giant proportions, until they have burst the railings, and shattered the head-stones. The dead lie crushed under vast grey roots each bigger than a full-grown man, bearing up an enormous column of grey wood twenty-five feet in girth. In other plots the headstones and the railings have disappeared under a mountain of brambles, on which the dog rose blooms for a day or two in spring. Oleanders twenty feet across feed on the rare organic material furnished by human hair and bone. Scented geraniums, grown hard and odourless, have seeded themselves for miles. I have found their descendants growing behind the ocean dunes at Sydenham inlet.
Along the road to Cooma grow spires of vivid blue Viper's Bugloss, more spectacular here than ever it is in Europe, where it is only found in wild places clutching the scree. Most Australians think it is a native, but they should know from the very density with which it grows, crowding out all competing vegetation, that it is an invader. In Australia, Viper's Bugloss grows more compact, and brighter green, with many more florets on the stem. The flowers are always blue with red stamens, instead of budding pink and turning blue, as they do in Europe. Alongside the tracts of Echium vulgare, you can see tall spires of Verbascum phoenicium, and Verbascum thapsiformis, both the same unnatural height, with new spathes appearing among the ruins of old ones, because they never die down properly and lose their old vegetation. In that same upland pasture country you can find sea-holly, and thistles, miles and miles of thistles, which graziers are obliged by law to eradicate, but the struggle is unequal. The pastoral industry staggers from crisis to crisis, unable to concern itself with minor details like the loss of thousands of cleared hectares to bulrushes and noxious weeds.
The story is an old one. 'To clear this land,' wrote a Quaker settler in Tasmania in 1887, 'that is, to ring the large trees, fell the small ones and burn off the scrub and sow it with grass seed, cost altogether about three pounds per acre, but if the burn off is successful, sufficient is realised from the first crop of grass seed, when cut and threshed, to pay the expenses of the clearing. But it is many years before the ground is anything like clear as the large trees will stand when rung thirty or forty years and in fact the settlers do not want to see them fall, as they take up so much room when lying on the ground and they will not burn until they are rotten and the labour of splitting them up is too great unless there is a market for the wood close at hand and means of getting the wood to it.'
The more energetic settlers destroyed the stumps of felled trees with gunpowder. 'A hole is bored with a two inch auger about four feet into the stump and into this about two pounds of powder are poured and this in exploding rends the stumps to pieces.' The others simply ring-barked them and left them standing till they fell, and then burnt them more or less. The results of these techniques can be seen all over Australia, where tree trunks and jagged stumps litter the degraded grasslands, long since given over to brambles and bulrushes.
The process was well advanced when our Quaker observer (who married a Greer from Ulster) was building his home in Tasmania in the 1870s. 'The sweet briar is a great trouble here. W.S. says it costs him a hundred pounds a year rooting it up. The cattle eat the hips and drop the seeds all over the field and they spring up everywhere. They generally wait until they are well-grown and then pass a chain around the bush and put a yoke of oxen to it and drag it bodily out of the ground.' In the prime pasture land of the Derwent Valley, farmers are now using herbicides and 245T to get rid of the weeds. All along the roadsides writhe scorched hawthorns and dog-roses, interspersed with clumps of fennel, swollen into gross yellow crozier shapes by the action of the poison.
The settlers soon realised that in inadvertently bringing with them thistles and ragwort they had made a serious mistake. As mile after mile of the land they had toiled to clear was taken over by thistles, the government brought in the Eradication of Thistles Act. A few years later, ragwort, Senecio jacobea, was declared a thistle in the meaning of the act. Then brambles were added to the list of noxious weeds, then prickly pear, which spread over 60,000 acres of arable land in Queensland alone. If the settlers had been in search of Lebensraum, the opportunist plants had far more capacity for exploiting it. In Europe, intensive farming can keep any weed from disrupting the ecological balance, but in Australia farms in order to be profitable have to be many times bigger than the average European smallholding. The weeds fought back. Most of the families who took up selections on Australia eventually abandoned them. If they were not defeated by noxious weeds, indigenous insects, and animal diseases, they were finally unable to mechanise or to tool up to modern hygiene and quality-control requirements.
No nation of independent farmers ever existed in Australia, despite policies of giving farming leases to virtually all who asked for them, returned soldiers, free settlers, new migrants. My Danish, Swiss-Italian and Irish ancestors were driven like most of the settlers by land hunger, but none of them remained on the land for more than a generation. Where they farmed abandoned fences hang in disrepair. Old sheep pens sag under tons of brambles. Felled trees lie higgledy-piggledy and tree stumps stand like tombstones. Between them grow acres of thistles and ragwort. Old fruit trees have turned to thickets of sterile branches choked with dead wood. The roses have escaped from the flower garden and turned to dog-roses growing in murderous thorn-bursts up and down the abandoned pastures.
More St John's Wort grows in the mountains near Beechworth than in all of England. The light shade of the eucalyptus woods and the frost protection they provide constitute an ideal environment. In Europe it grows in clumps in abandoned farmland and as an occasional in woods, but in Victoria it grows as a carpet, miles and miles of rusty yellow under the trees. By Christmas its flowering period is already over, but no natives overwhelm its spent flower heads, for all the nutrient in the fragile soil has gone to produce their brief blaze. There is no point in walking in these woods, for here there is nothing but St John's Wort to see. In Europe St John's Wort (Hypericum perforatum) is a welcome thing, a useful medicinal for man and beast. In Italy cows used to be given a nosegay of St John's Wort and garlic to eat at the feast of St John to clear their blood. Perhaps the early settlers brought it with them as a useful herb, not knowing that the aborigine pharmacopeia was at least as sophisticated as their own. When it became dominant their medicinal became poisonous.
Some of the farmers say that the opportunists do well for the first few years, but they overload the ecology and quickly exhaust the soil. As suddenly as they appear, they disappear. They might of course say the same about themselves. Australia used to live on the sheep's back, but sheep ate out the grasslands, whether produced by clearing scrub and forest, or natural. They nibbled away the groundcover and their hard pointed feet compacted the earth. The wind and the rain did the rest. Even today, sheep farmers run too many sheep to the acre, but costs of manpower, equipment and transport are high. The Australian shearer is the fastest and cuts the closest in the world, but his price, a mere $110 per hundred, is too high. The wool-growers are experimenting with a protein which administered in the right amount will make the sheep's fleeces fall off.
Nobody cares, least of all the grazier, if the shearer becomes extinct. There is no way of life to defend; the shearer himself was an itinerant worker who lived in a town when he was not on the wool-track. The most important consideration in Australia is to keep the profit margin wide enough to support the grazier's lifestyle. The shearer's job demands massive strength, endurance and skill, but the combination cannot earn him what the lessee of the land, who may spend less time on his estate than the shearer does, considers to be his just reward. Even if he manages to make the shearer redundant, it is unlikely that the grazier can continue to live in the old way off his wool cheque, educating his children in private schools and travelling abroad whenever he wishes. The Minister for Commerce, Industry and Development says that the independent graziers are a luxury. Like it or not, they will eventually have to sell out to big business. Corporate farming will manage far vaster tracts of land and will be able to move the sheep population in a more rational manner so that no area is degraded or eaten out. This could mean that the white man is learning the wisdom of the aborigine use of the land, but he will be able to make only limited use of his new understanding. Even if he were to acquire a taste for goanna meat and witchetty grubs, or anything else that Australia produces naturally (besides seafood) the white man could not live off them, because, like the Viper's Bugloss and the St John's Wort, he is too prolific and too greedy. When the corporate farmers seed their pasture, they will seed it with European and American trefoils, and they will not herd emus but sheep.
One of the assumptions underlying the celebration of the two hundredth anniversary of the First Fleet as a 'Bi-centennial' or Australia's birthday is that it was fortunate for the island continent that British people attended to its exploitation. 'If we hadn't settled,' the revellers snarl, 'someone else would have. Whaddyareckon would have happened to this country if the Chinese or the Indians had taken it over?' It is a curious fact that the 'Afghans' who ran the camel trains that kept the outback settlers alive, who were mostly Pathans, survived in the deserts where well-equipped explorers died, because they lived as equals with Aborigines and learned from them. They developed a cuisine which used native plants, and adapted aborigine technology in the finding and preparation of food. And they endured the same obloquy as the Aborigines. If their descendants had flourished, multiplied and become dominant, Australia might have developed a completely distinct ecology and economy, producing new foodstuffs for the vast Asian market, instead of the beef, and wool, and uranium that have been extracted at such cost.
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