Operation WESERÜBUNG
SUNDAY, 7 APRIL 1940, and a fine spring day. Leutnant Helmut Lent and the rest of his Staffel, 1/ZG 76, were flying over the Baltic sea in their twin-engine Messerschmitt 110 Zerstörers. Below, Lent could see a large formation of German ships, including two battleships, the mighty Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, heading north, a sight that made him feel proud and one that he would not readily forget. The task of the Luftwaffe was to protect this fleet from any aerial attack, but why the Kriegsmarine was steaming north was anyone's guess. 'One could speculate,' noted Lent, 'but one couldn't come up with any answers.'
Not until the following day did Lent and his comrades discover the truth. Called together that morning, Monday, 8 April, they were told they were being posted north from their base at Jever to Westerland on the island of Sylt, just off the western side of the German–Danish border. The reason for the move was that at dawn the following day Germany was going to invade both Denmark and Norway. The task of the Zerstörers was to protect the airborne drop planned for the airfield at Fornebu near Oslo in Norway and then to land there themselves. 'It was,' scribbled Lent, 'to be the most daring operation ever in German history.'
Lent may well have been right, but Hitler had felt compelled to act, terrified that the Allies would snatch control of the all-important Swedish iron ore so crucial to his war aims. General Thomas and the economists at the OKW pointed out that a shortfall would be disastrous should the war continue for longer than around six months. In other words, not only was the Narvik route still of vital importance, but so was ensuring all other shipping routes remained open too, which rather gave weight to Churchill's original strategy for Norway.
But it wasn't just about supplies of iron ore. Throughout the autumn of 1939, Admiral Raeder, Commander-in-Chief of the Kriegsmarine, had repeatedly stressed to Hitler the value of having bases along the Norwegian coast, both to deny them to the Allies and for use by U-boats. As Raeder pointed out, British naval and air bases in Norway would be a serious problem for Germany, not least because it would mean a significant tightening of the economic blockade. Of course, the converse was also true: a Norway in German hands would unquestionably work against the Allies and Britain especially.
With his mind focused on an assault in the West, Hitler had initially favoured a policy of ensuring both Sweden and Norway remained neutral. But Raeder continued to chip away, even introducing the Führer to Vidkun Quisling, leader of the admittedly small Norwegian Fascist party, the Nasjonal Samling.
Whether it was Quisling who prompted Hitler into action is not clear, but certainly the Führer was listening to the repeated argument about the danger of a British occupation of Norway. He still favoured keeping Norway neutral but was becoming open to the idea of striking there swiftly should there be any sign the British were to make a move in that direction.
To be ready for this eventuality, preparations needed to be made. Initially, the OKW was asked to draw up a feasibility study, then at the beginning of February a new Sonderstab – or 'special staff' – was formed within the OKW especially to prepare operational plans for an attack on Norway. These were drawn from Jodl's and Warlimont's staffs and were ordered to do their work in utmost secrecy.
Everything about these plans had the mark of Hitler's direct involvement and they were hurriedly accelerated following the Altmark incident, when the British boarded the German ship inside Norwegian waters. Hitler summoned General von Falkenhorst, an Army commander who back in 1918 had once served in Finland, for consultation about fighting in the north. Apparently liking the cut of von Falkenhorst's jib, he there and then appointed him as the commander of Operation WESERÜBUNG, as it was to be called, without any further consultation with either the OKW or the OKH whatsoever. Von Falkenhorst had then hurried out, still in a state of shock, and had hastily bought a Baedeker travel guide and begun making his own plans.
Neither Halder and von Brauchitsch nor Göring and the Luftwaffe staff were consulted on any aspect of the plans. Both parties were furious about it when they were finally briefed at the beginning of March, not just because they had been kept in the dark, but also because they felt they were massively pushing their luck with the plans for the Western offensive as it was; attacking Norway and Denmark seemed a highly unnecessary diversion of resources at a critical moment. At the conference at the Reich Chancellery in Berlin on 5 March, Göring pronounced the plans unworkable and refused to subordinate the Luftwaffe to von Falkenhorst as Hitler had proposed. Instead, he appointed his deputy, General Erhard Milch as commander for WESERÜBUNG. Hitler responded by shutting Göring, second only to himself in the Nazi hierarchy, out of any further planning discussions. It was an unconventional way to prepare a major military operation, to say the least. As Warlimont later noted, sensible military practice was to consult fully with senior commanders and staffs, co-ordinate those requirements and appreciations, and carefully weigh up the pros and cons. Such an approach did not wash with Hitler, however.
As far as Warlimont was concerned, the end of war in Finland should have put an end to the plans. The attack in the West would be launched soon and would tie down British and French troops. If they were successful in the West, Warlimont reasoned, they could tackle Norway far more easily later. What was the point of undertaking an operation that would unquestionably draw on important resources? It was an entirely unnecessary risk. There was much in what Warlimont said.
But Hitler now had his mind irrevocably set on the Scandinavian venture. When Göring's private listening service, the Forschungsamt, picked up a Finnish diplomatic telegram in March revealing Allied plans for Norway, the Führer decided to act. On 2 April, he announced that Operation WESERÜBUNG was on. The attack would begin on 9 April at 5.15 a.m., and would be, he pronounced, one of the 'rashest undertakings in the history of modern warfare'. High-risk military gambles with minimal consultation or co-ordinated planning were very much Hitler's style.
The final plan that had been outlined to Helmut Lent and his comrades on 7 April was astonishingly bold, and involved six naval task forces – or Marinegruppen – for Norway and five for Denmark. This required pretty much the entire Kriegsmarine, including thirty-one U-boats – the entire operational submarine force, which had thus given Allied Atlantic trade a welcome respite from attack. The invasion force also included Luftflotte X, an entire air corps of over 1,200 aircraft, and some eight Army divisions plus reserves and other units amounting to around 120,000 men; more than 30,000 troops would be part of the first wave. Simultaneously, this force intended to occupy Denmark and key cities in Norway, from the capital, Oslo, in the south to Narvik in the north and including Trondheim, Bergen, Egersund and Kristiansand. Rash it may have been, but there was certainly nothing half-cocked about the plan. The Germans meant to occupy both countries in their entirety.
The Allied intervention in Scandinavia had appeared to be dead in the water following the end of the fighting in Finland and the subsequent resignation of Daladier. But the new French Prime Minister, Paul Reynaud, had been determined to show a bit more grip and offensive spirit and had quickly proposed a series of actions that included mining the Leads, submarine attacks in the Black Sea and air strikes on the oil fields of the Caucasus; the French were prepared to go to war with Russia if it meant disrupting the flow of all-important oil to Germany. In fact, anything was fair game so long as it meant distracting the Germans away from France's back door.
In the meantime, the British Chiefs of Staff had decided to opt for a continuation of the waiting strategy; they wanted to further rearm before taking the offensive, yet they appreciated the need to work in tandem with the French. At yet another meeting of the Supreme War Council on 28 March, they managed to dissuade the French from any attack on the Soviet Union and to get Reynaud to agree to mine the River Rhine, an operation the British had been urging for months. In return, they agreed to the mining operation of the Leads. It was also subsequently agreed, at the urging of both Churchill and his French counterpart, Amiral François Darlan, to put an Allied expeditionary force on standby for Norway because they both thought it likely that mining the Leads would prompt the Germans into an attempt to seize the iron ore mines.
All this having been agreed, Daladier, who had remained Minister of National Defence and War, and the French Comité de Guerre then refused to authorize the mining of the Rhine. For a while, the Narvik operation was once again off. On 4 April, Churchill, with Edward Spears in tow, hurried once more to Paris to try and change Daladier's mind, flying in an ageing de Havilland. Spears felt as buffeted about as if they were a 'salad in a colander manipulated by a particularly energetic cook', but they none the less made it in one piece.
It was soon clear that Daladier's refusal to play ball over the mining of the Rhine was as much to do with his personal animosity towards Reynaud as it was about any military considerations; certainly Edward Spears was in no doubt. 'The two men detested each other,' he noted, 'and Daladier was determined to exert his utmost power to humiliate Reynaud in every way possible.'
In Paris, Churchill tried but failed to persuade Daladier to reconsider the Rhine mining project. The French, Daladier told him, did not have the air force to retaliate should the Germans bomb France's cities in response to the mining of the Rhine. In fact, Daladier was mistaken. The Armée de l'Air had almost the same number of aircraft as the Luftwaffe, that is around 3,500. Nor would Daladier agree to have dinner with both Churchill and Reynaud, which the former had hoped to use to bring about some unity of purpose. 'What will centuries to come say if we lose this war through lack of understanding?' Churchill asked him. Churchill, determined that Britain should not be drawn into the same personal conflict, advised the War Cabinet and British Chiefs to go ahead with the Norwegian mining operation in the interest of maintaining good relations with their French ally. This was agreed, as was a further plan, known simply as 'R.4', to land troops in Narvik should the Germans either set foot on Norwegian soil or show clear signs that they intended to do so. These troops would be ready and waiting to be shipped out as soon as the minelaying operations began.
'The PM for his part is not over-enthusiastic,' noted Jock Colville on Saturday, 6 April, 'but feels that after the expectations aroused by the meeting of the Supreme War Council the other day, some effective action must be taken.' It was hardly a ringing endorsement from Britain's war leader, but finally, some seven months after Churchill had first suggested the operation, and after much heartache, general teeth-sucking, negotiations and prevarication, Norwegian neutrality was to be cast aside. 'The laying of the minefield in Norwegian waters,' added Colville, 'is timed for dawn on Monday.'
As the German invasion forces steamed north through Sunday, 7 April, RAF reconnaissance aircraft picked them up and later more than thirty British bombers attacked the naval groups heading for Trondheim and Narvik, but their bombs missed. Meanwhile, that afternoon, the Commander-in-Chief of the British Home Fleet, Admiral Sir Charles Forbes, finally received more precise details of the numerous German forces, and by just after nine that evening, after some hastily changed plans, his ships had put to sea. There were already a number of British destroyers and minelayers stationed at the mouth of the Vestfjord, the gateway to Narvik, and further south near Ålesund for the planned minelaying operations, so a clash was inevitable.
It was incredible that after so much Allied vacillation over Norway, both sides should have been beginning their offensives at the same moment and both be ignorant of the other's plans. Just a few days earlier, the Prime Minister, a very reluctant war leader, had declared in a speech on 4 April that he now felt ten times more confident of victory than he had at the outbreak of war. He was not so very surprised that Hitler had not launched the offensive that had been promised; applying the calm methodical approach to war that had dictated his own strategic views, he assumed Hitler had decided such an attack was not worth the do-or-die risk it would inevitably prove to be. Chamberlain clearly still hoped the war would fizzle out into a negotiated peace. He was, of course, making the fatal error of judging Hitler by his own standards. The British Prime Minister and the German Führer could not have been more different. Chamberlain would never have recklessly gambled all; Hitler was instinctively compelled to do so. At any rate, one thing was certain, Chamberlain assured his audience: Hitler had missed the bus. How those words would come back to haunt him.
Now, on the evening of 7 April, frantic recalculations had to be made. Clearly, a sizeable German naval operation was underway; just precisely what its intention was, though, was not so clear. Both Admiral Forbes and the Admiralty believed what was now important was to bring their superior naval forces to bear to deal a crucial blow to the Kriegsmarine. Forbes ordered his Home Fleet to try and bring the German capital ships to battle, while in London Churchill, without consulting either Chamberlain or Forbes, ordered the four cruisers at Rosyth, jam-packed with troops for Narvik, to disembark the soldiers and then head with all speed to seek battle. This was to prove a bad mistake.
The first major clash happened around 8 a.m. the following morning when HMS Glowworm intercepted the German heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper and four destroyers. Glowworm had been part of the minelaying force in the Vestfjord but had been left behind to look for a sailor who had fallen overboard. Initially, the British destroyer had tried to run, having sent crucial signals as to the size and location of the German force, but was soon obliged to fight. Badly crippled, the ship continued firing in return and then, with its decks on fire and beginning to sink, her skipper gave the order to ram the Admiral Hipper, sheering off forty metres of armour and torpedo tubes from the German warship in the process. It was the end of Glowworm, which rolled and blew up, killing all but thirty-eight of her crew.
Meanwhile, the British battlecruiser HMS Renown and nine destroyers had been ordered to prevent any German force reaching Narvik. Throughout the day, the weather deteriorated with gales and a heavy swell, so it was not until dawn the following morning, 9 April, that the British force finally spotted the two German battleships, Gneisenau and Scharnhorst, and their accompanying destroyer force. Both sides quickly went into action, the big ships slugging it out with their heavy guns despite the still rough seas. The British destroyer force was struggling to keep up with Renown, but the weight of their fire convinced the Germans they were facing stronger opposition than was the reality, and with Gneisenau's main fire support system destroyed, the Germans turned away.
By that time, the invasion of Denmark and Norway was already well underway.
At the Royal Palace in Oslo, King Haakon VII of Norway had been woken at 1.30 a.m. on the morning of Tuesday, 9 April. Several unknown ships had been spotted moving into the Oslofjord. Soon after, further reports of ships had been reported at Bergen and Stavanger, and a little while later they were confirmed as German.
'Majesty,' the King's aide told him, 'we are at war!'
'With whom?' replied the King.
Both the King and the Government had learned about the arrival of British ships off Narvik the previous day, and since then their focus had been on Britain and the minelaying operation; the sudden appearance of the Germans had caught them off guard. An immediate mobilization had been ordered, but no one in the Government, it was quickly realized, knew how the mobilization should proceed. A few hours later, the Germans formally requested the Norwegians to capitulate and offer no resistance; the aim of the operation, the Germans claimed, was to protect Norway from occupation by Anglo-French forces. The Norwegians dismissed this out of hand.
While the Government was frantically trying to react as swiftly as possible but faltering badly, the German invasion forces were beginning to reach their objectives and land. At 7 a.m., the Messerschmitt 110s of 1/ZG 76 were taking off from Sylt. The entire Zerstörer Gruppe was involved that day, but 1. Staffel, including Helmut Lent and his radio operator/gunner, Walter Kubisch, were to play an important part in the capture of Fornebu, the main airfield near Oslo. In what was to be the first ever operational airborne drop, paratroopers, or Fallschirmjäger, were to land, followed twenty minutes later by waves of troops in Junkers 52 transport planes. Lent and his comrades were both to provide cover and to attack targets on the ground.
Eight of them took off at 7 a.m. that morning heading north to Fornebu so as to be there at 8.45 a.m. when the Fallschirmjäger were due to land. Thick cloud covered the sky, so they climbed to some 13,000 feet to get clear of it and an hour and a half later were at the entrance to the Oslofjord. Lent did not know it at the time, but already the German invasion force at Oslo had been badly hit. The heavy cruiser Blücher, commissioned only the previous September and one of only five in the Kriegsmarine, had been hit by Norwegian shore batteries and at 7.23 a.m. had sunk. There had been some 1,600 men on board, of whom more than three hundred were dead. A second heavy cruiser, the Lützow, had also been badly damaged.
Lent saw nothing of this, although as they flew over the Oslofjord the clouds cleared. 'For the first time we see the land of Norway beneath us,' wrote Lent, 'a wonderful sight!' Opening the throttles, they sped on towards Oslo, then Lent realized the rest of the Staffel were veering to starboard towards the sun. A moment later, he saw a Norwegian Gloster Gladiator, a biplane fighter, away to his left sitting on the tail of one of his comrades. Banking sharply, Lent opened fire and the Gladiator peeled off and disappeared.
Seemingly out of nowhere, however, Lent now found himself in the middle of a swirling dogfight. He managed to get behind another Gladiator, and briefly opened fire only to find bullets arcing past him. A further Norwegian plane was now on his tail. 'I dive, pull up, turn. My attack fails,' he scribbled. 'We Zerstörers are faster, but the Glosters are more manoeuvrable.' Moments later, the sky was empty and the Me110s were regrouping, only for two more Gladiators to appear out of the clouds and attack. One plunged downwards, trailing smoke, the other disappeared once more.
Now they were over Fornebu and there was no sign of the airborne troops. Desperately looking around, all Lent could see was a Ju52 attempting to land but under heavy fire. Lent glanced at his fuel gauges – there was just fifteen minutes' worth left. The plan was to land at Fornebu themselves once it had been secured, but if they weren't on the ground soon, they would fall out of the sky for lack of fuel. Lent and his Rotte of three further Zerstörers dived down over the airfield and began shooting up the defences themselves. As he swooped over, a machine-gun nest he had not spotted opened up, riddling the plane. Lent pulled up past the end of the airfield, only to hear Kubisch call out, 'Starboard engine on fire!'
'Calm down, Kubisch! We'll land!' Lent replied.
Quickly shutting down the smoking engine, Lent thought quickly. Apart from the Ju52, no other plane had landed, but he decided he might as well be the first. Lowering the undercarriage, then the flaps, he banked and turned in towards the runway but realized he was too high – and the airfield looked horribly short. Would he get away with it? More bullets were spitting towards him from the right. The ground rose towards him and then – touchdown. Brakes, then Lent felt himself lurch forward and suddenly he was at the end of the runway with no more time for thought, only the hedge at the end of the field rushing towards him. Bracing himself, he felt the Zerstörer tear through the bushes then collapse as the undercarriage was wrenched off. Now they were sliding, tearing across the grass on the aircraft's belly until finally they came to a halt just yards short of a fence by a country house.
Lent hurriedly opened the canopy, saw Kubisch was as alive and well as he was, then spotted an airman striding towards him. 'Heil Hitler,' called out the man and seeing the pistol in Lent's hand asked him whether he was going to fire.
'If you don't fire, I won't,' Lent replied. The two men quickly agreed an armistice, by which time Lent saw that other Zerstörers had landed. Fornebu, it seemed, was now in German hands. Soon after, the transport planes arrived, filled with troops: one Ju52 after another was landing in quick succession, until no fewer than fifty-three had touched down, soldiers pouring out of every one.
In his parents' flat in Oslo, Gunnar Sonsteby, twenty-one years old, was woken early by the sound of an air raid siren. Every radio in the building suddenly appeared to be on, blaring the astonishing news that the Germans had invaded and instructing people to make for the nearest air raid shelters. Hurrying out of bed, his first reaction was one of defiance. He was both appalled and indignant, so much so that while everyone else in the building trooped downstairs, Sonsteby remained where he was. So with his parents now living in Rjukan, a hundred miles west of Oslo, he made his breakfast and calmly ate his egg.
Although he had registered to study economics at the university, he made ends meet with a job at a nearby motorcycle shop, and, still bristling with anger and thoughts of rebellion, he soon after headed out to work. Walking through the city, he repeatedly had to take cover in doorways as planes hurtled over and machine guns barked out. Having made it to work in one piece, he discovered his colleagues gathered there chattering about what was happening, and so Sonsteby headed back out again to have a look around. To his horror, the city already appeared to be occupied by German troops. A column of them were marching down Karl Johan, the main street in the city, while machine guns had been set up in the park behind the Royal Palace. Other Norwegians passed on the news and rumours: Oslo had fallen and the King and Government had escaped and were now 'somewhere in Norway'. 'Everyone I met,' noted Sonsteby, 'was as stupefied as me.'
In fact, the resistance of the shore gunners, small warships in Oslofjord and the tiny Norwegian Air Force had proved crucial. The German invasion of the capital, swift though it unquestionably was, had been held up just long enough to allow King Haakon and the Government to escape, to Hamar, seventy miles to the north. Incredibly, the nation's gold reserves had also been smuggled out almost from under the noses of the Germans now swarming over the city. However, with more troops landing at Fornebu and with German merchant ships cunningly already in port stacked with arms, ammunition and other supplies previously hidden on board, the capital and the surrounding area were now in German hands. Operation WESERÜBUNG may have been an incredibly rash undertaking, but once again Hitler's penchant for extreme risk-taking appeared to be paying off.
CHAPTER 17
The Battle for Norway
ACROSS THE BALTIC, Denmark had capitulated fully. At the same time that the Norwegian government had been given the chance to accept German occupation, a similar offer was made to King Christian X, who accepted. Fighting still broke out, but the entire country was in German hands in a matter of hours, surely the fastest conquest of a country in history, and which included an airborne drop by German Fallschirmjäger and no fewer than five simultaneous naval landings. Swift, ruthless and utterly efficient, it was hard to fault German execution of the plan, no matter how unorthodox the planning might have been. And now the Germans had bases and airfields even closer to Norway.
Even so, the two countries, and Denmark especially, were militarily weak, and these swift conquests flattered to deceive. In any invasion, so long as it has been kept secret right up to the final moment, the attacker holds a number of aces: surprise and choice of where to strike, and the benefit of the confusion caused among the enemy as a result. Invasion day, 9 April, had gone pretty well, despite a few significant losses, and by nightfall the port of Stavanger and the nearby Sola airfield had been captured by the Fallschirmjäger in a further successful airborne drop. Kristiansand had been taken as well, Bergen and Trondheim were in German hands, and General Dietl's mountain troops, the Gebirgsjäger, had successfully landed at Narvik, having evaded the Royal Navy. It was clear that the only ones who had missed any bus were the British, whose Navy had been completely wrong-footed by German intentions and who initially had assumed the Kriegsmarine had been attempting a massed breakout into the Atlantic.
Yet as General Walter Warlimont at the OKW was all too aware, planning had been done by von Falkenhorst's staff, seconded from direct control of the Army, and the special team devised at the OKW. Halder and von Brauchitsch had been completely sidelined despite their preparations for Case YELLOW, so that entire divisions already planned to take part in the all-or-nothing strike in the West were taken away from them despite their objections. Göring, having thrown his toys out of the pram when he had discovered what was being planned behind his back, had then been given completely free rein with the Luftwaffe. The Navy, too, had refused to keep warships in Norwegian ports after the landings, to which Hitler had curiously acquiesced, even after his operational order had been issued. Warlimont had been appalled. Hitler's micromanagement of WESERÜBUNG, he noted, 'broke all the rules'. Somehow, these disparate services had all come together beautifully for the all-crucial launch of the operation, but there was no doubt that Allied failures and the military weakness of Denmark and Norway helped mask some serious flaws.
Nor did Germany have it all its own way in the days that followed. In fact, early the following morning, 10 April, the German naval force now at Narvik was surprised by the arrival of a British destroyer flotilla. At around 5.30 a.m., HMS Hardy unleashed torpedoes and blew up the German flagship, the Wilhelm Heidkamp, killing eighty-one, including the force commander. Another ship was repeatedly hit and set on fire, then, as more British destroyers joined the fray, a second ship was sunk. The action continued down the Vestfjord, and, although Hardy was sunk in turn and another destroyer badly damaged, all of General Dietl's guns were sent to the bottom when a German supply ship was destroyed.
Over the next couple of days, the Royal Navy continued to get the better of the Kriegsmarine. At Narvik, the five remaining German destroyers were trapped and three days later, with the arrival of the British battleship HMS Warspite and a force of nine destroyers, were annihilated.
It should not have been so one-sided that day at Narvik. Lurking in the mouth of the fjord were both U-46 and U-48, part of the entire available U-boat fleet still operating around Norway. On board U-46, Erich Topp had been as alarmed as all the crew to find themselves trapped at Narvik with far too many British destroyers lurking and not enough room for their boat to manoeuvre. On the night of the 11th, they had taken up their position offshore from the town, when suddenly air raid sirens were blaring and then aircraft were overhead and bombing them. Everyone ran for cover apart from Topp and a couple of others who manned their machine gun. 'Despite tremendous anti-aircraft fire we do not hit a single enemy plane,' jotted Topp. He saw a bomb destroy a shed just fifty yards away on the shore. 'Only 20 yards away one of our crew is instantly killed by another bomb, while another man is simply laid flat by the blast.'
Meanwhile, during its entire time in Norwegian waters, U-48 had been unable to hit a single ship, even though there had been no shortage of targets. Nor was it alone. Time and again, U-boats had fired their torpedoes only to discover they then failed to explode. U-47, which had sunk the Royal Oak at Scapa Flow back in October, should have made it two, when she fired two torpedoes at Warspite, only for them to miss and for her to be nearly sunk in turn by vengeful destroyers. In fact, Warspite was attacked no fewer than four times, British cruisers were fired at fourteen times, and ten destroyers and ten transport vessels were also attacked without success. The problem, it seemed, was with the torpedoes' detonation devices. German torpedoes used magnetic pistols, which enabled a torpedo to detect its target by its magnetic field. This then triggered the fuse for explosion. The trouble was that in such northern waters the magnetic pistols were not working properly. Other torpedoes, equipped with contact pistols, which detonated on impact, had been insufficiently tested beforehand and were also failing. The net result was that golden opportunities to sink significant numbers of British warships had been let slip, and normally fearless U-boat captains lost confidence – possibly the single most important attribute needed for the successful submarine skipper.
U-46, on the other hand, did not even have a chance to try and attack. After being repeatedly bombed and depth-charged, running aground, and then finally slipping out of Narvik, it had finally reached the open sea on the 18th having somehow escaped what Erich Topp could only describe as a 'witches' cauldron'. When the U-boat eventually made it back to Kiel, its flotilla commander had looked very grave. 'Was it the sight of our pale, hollow faces that got to him?' Topp wondered. 'Or sympathy for our exhausting, unsuccessful mission?'
While impotent U-boats failed to make much of a mark, the Royal Navy and RAF were able to take their toll on Germany's surface fleet. The cruiser Königsberg was sunk, as was the Karlsruhe. Lützow had also been hit on 11 April and had to be towed back to Kiel, so badly damaged there was no chance of her being used in the Atlantic any time soon.
While the British Navy had swiftly recovered its composure, the Allies' own invasion plans never really recovered, even though, with the fleeing Norwegian Government now only too happy for their help, they at least had the opportunity to proceed without any further moral conundrum.
For most of the troops earmarked for the previously planned landing at Narvik, these were confusing and frustrating days. Most were Territorials – the regulars were all in France. British infantry regiments were broken down into battalions; the 1st and 2nd were usually the Regular battalions, while the 5th and even the 7th – if needed – tended to be made up with Territorials; this was the case with the Leicestershire Regiment, and it included local men like the 21-year-old Joseph 'Lofty' Kynoch, who had been brought up in the village of Thorpe Acre near Leicester and had joined the TA a couple of years earlier. His call-up papers had arrived the day he had returned from annual summer camp; he had reported to the TA centre in Leicester the day the Germans had marched into Poland.
After training throughout the winter near Durham in the north of the country, and despite rumours that they would be heading to Finland, it was not until the beginning of April that suddenly and dramatically they were on the move. Late on 6 April, Kynoch and his pals of 2/5th Leicesters boarded a train, and after an interminable journey of numerous and lengthy halts they finally reached Scotland on Sunday the 7th. In Edinburgh, the battalion was split up. Kynoch, the Bren carrier platoon and the rest of Headquarters Company disembarked at Leith, Edinburgh's port, while the rest went on to Rosyth. Waiting for them was the merchant vessel Cedarbank, while drawn up in a line along the quay were brand-new lorries and tracked carriers. The men drove them on to nets and then watched them hoisted on board.
Even once the troops were aboard, Kynoch and his mates were still none the wiser as to what was going on.
'It's just an exercise, Lofty,' one assured him. 'After all, the war in Finland is over.'
Later that day, they were told to disembark and were sent on lighters across the Forth to the liner Orion. At this point, Kynoch and many others parted company with their kit bags. They were never to see them again.
Since the German invasion had completely wrong-footed the Allies, the confusion was perhaps understandable. The truth was, the Allies had anticipated a completely different order of events: they would mine the Leads, then Germany would react, which would take them time, and then British and French troops would land, with Norwegian blessing, and secure key ports, not least Narvik. There was an astonishing naivety to this, as though no variation of this scenario were remotely possible. In part, this was because the war leaders of both Britain and France were still feeling their way as partners, and while the broad strategy was agreed, geo-politically they were in different positions and so had different agendas. It was the British who were leading the Norwegian operations, and yet there was no overall Allied commander as there was in France. The British Chiefs of Staff were also still settling slowly into their wartime modus operandi, and tending to put their own service interests first rather than thinking and acting as the integrated team that was necessary. With French politicians bickering, British Chiefs of Staff jockeying for position, and national sensitivities also playing their part, the net result was a joint decision-making process that was a little cumbersome, to put it mildly.
The response to the German invasion was a case in point, as plans were discarded, then changed, then changed again, all of which was costing precious time – time in which the German position in Norway, on land if not out at sea, was getting stronger by the day.
The revised plan, as agreed by both the British and the French, was that a force of British troops and French chasseurs alpins – mountain troops – would be sent to Narvik, and a further British component to Namsos, north of Trondheim, and Åndalsnes to the south. The idea was that these latter two forces would advance on Trondheim, in between Namsos and Åndalsnes, in a pincer movement. The whole of the north of Norway would then be in Allied hands.
A further problem was that these troops had been originally only lightly equipped – it had been expected that the Norwegians would help with guns and vehicles. There was also little air support, as it had been also supposed that around Narvik, especially, the fighting would be too far north for either side. So more guns, trucks and even troops had had to be hurriedly found. The French had bolstered their contribution, for example, by sending an entire light division to Narvik, although these would not arrive there until a week after the British. Not much could be done about the lack of air support, so that although in terms of men on the ground the Germans did not have an overwhelming advantage, in guns and aircraft they most certainly did. All in all, prospects for the Allies in Norway, despite successes at sea, did not look promising.
Even so, as far as Britain was concerned, it was not a lost cause just yet. The RAF may not have been able to send much in the way of fighters, but it was willing to use its bomber force. Among those flying on 11 April was Pilot Officer Tony Smyth, who had recently been transferred from flying Blenheims to the bigger, heavier Wellingtons. Smyth was twenty-four and had joined the RAF Volunteer Reserve back in 1937; having realized it was the perfect way to avoid working for the family paint firm, Manders, he had applied and was accepted for a permanent commission a year later. An intrepid cyclist and mountaineer, he had travelled throughout Europe – and Nazi Germany – and climbed many of its highest peaks. Flying had been treated as yet another adventure and, as he was discovering, it was already more than living up to the billing he had given it.
Small, wiry and with quick, sharp eyes and a sweep of strawberry blond hair, Smyth was a man able to think on his feet and apply his highly practical brain to most given situations. This had been very useful when his Wellington had lost an engine soon after take-off back in March. New to the squadron, he was only the second pilot, but after the plane had crash-landed in flames, he had escaped miraculously unhurt only to then go back into the burning wreckage and pull out the wireless operator, navigator and centre gunner, and then, despite blistering to his face from the heat, with the captain, 'Darkey' Powell, rescued the rear gunner as well.
With all their crew now in hospital, Smyth and Powell and the rest of the sub-flight had been hurriedly posted temporarily from 101 Squadron to 115 Squadron, based at Kinloss in Scotland. Attached to A Flight, they had been sent to bomb a reported German cruiser in Kristiansand, only to be recalled, but now, on the evening of the 11th, they were approaching the Norwegian coast and Stavanger, along with five other Wellingtons, in what was to be the first intentional bombing raid of the European mainland by Bomber Command since the start of the war.
Flying low, and in formation, they overshot, so Powell, at the controls, banked and went around for another run. This time, streams of tracer and puffs of flak lit up the fading light. Smyth saw an aircraft on fire on the ground, but again their line was too far awry and so they went around again, for a third attempt. By now, every gun and small arm on the ground was firing at them and Powell was forced off his run yet again, this time by having to dodge radio masts that suddenly loomed towards them. Smyth saw one of their fellow Wellingtons hit and burst into flames, then a moment later there was a deafening and blinding explosion in the cockpit of their own plane. They had been hit by several cannon shells, one piece of shrapnel hitting Powell in the side, another hitting a buckle on Smyth's shoulder and a third, very small piece hitting his cheek.
'I've had enough, I'm going home,' Powell told Smyth, climbing and then safely jettisoning their still undropped bomb load. Meanwhile, Smyth went back to see what other damage there was. It seemed the Wellington had been hit along the fuselage too. The rear gunner had been badly injured and had to be hastily bandaged and given morphine, while the hydraulics had been shot away so that both the flaps and the undercarriage were now inoperable. This was bad luck for Powell, who, already wounded, now had to fly all the way back to Scotland – unable to trim the plane as he was, there was no real way of swapping places with Smyth.
The main compass had also been smashed, but they not only managed to make it back to Kinloss, but Powell was able to safely belly-land the Wellington. 'I went to bed,' noted Smyth, 'troubled only by the thought that in three weeks, of the eighteen aircrew in the sub-flight, twelve were dead, five were in hospital, and I alone was on my feet.'
Also flying that day had been Guy Gibson and seven other Hampden crews from 83 Squadron. He had found his first operation back in September a terrifying proposition, but after months of very little activity he and the rest of the squadron were now chomping at the bit. 'To say that we were all keen,' he noted, 'would be a masterpiece of understatement.' They took off around 11 p.m., with 1,500lb magnetic 'M' mines strapped in the bomb bays and instructions to reconnoitre Danish towns and ports to hide the real purpose of the trip. Gibson thought the plan seemed sensible enough – from Kiel to Norway, German ships had to pass through one of three fairly narrow channels, so mining these was a good idea. 'Everyone,' he noted, 'was very optimistic.'
The trip was remarkably uneventful. They crossed the North Sea, stooged around Denmark, then found the right spot and dropped the mine, clearly seeing it, in the pale night light, gurgle into the dark water. It was a long trip, however. Having flown all night, Gibson and his crew did not land back down again until breakfast the following morning – they had been airborne about eight hours and Gibson himself clambered out feeling pretty cramped.
Three nights later, on the 14th, Gibson and his crew were minelaying again, but this time the weather was atrocious and really they should never have been sent out. Despite high winds, rain and a low cloud base, they somehow managed to find their target, which was a narrow strip of water at Middelfart in the Baltic off the Danish mainland. Flying so low they were almost touching the water, Gibson suddenly spotted Middelfart Bridge directly up ahead; it was too late to fly over it, so Gibson went underneath it instead. Immediately, the bomb bay was opened, and the two mines were dropped, and then suddenly a flak ship was firing at them. 'We were only about one hundred feet,' noted Gibson, 'but we soon pulled up in to cloud.'
They headed for home, the Hampden buffeted and bucked about and crackling with static electricity. After more than seven hours in the air, they touched down not at Scampton, but at Manston, on the tip of Kent. Gibson was exhausted, but while he and his crew had safely made it, another from 83 Squadron had been unable to find Manston and had disappeared, presumably into the sea. Nothing was ever heard of them again.
They were not alone. Losses were being suffered on most operations – one here, two there – but because Bomber Command was still so small, every one was felt. In fact, there is no question that the comparative lack of activity up to the invasion of Norway had been a godsend to the command, as it had allowed crews the chance to train in relative peace. However, Air Marshal Edgar Ludlow-Hewitt, the commander of Bomber Command, had also recognized that as the command expanded, so more instructors would be urgently needed to train recruits and work up reserves – and these could only realistically be drawn from existing squadrons. And so he took the drastic, but entirely necessary, measure of reducing the front line of Bomber Command in order to help the rapid expansion that was planned. Soon after the outbreak of war, no fewer than seventeen squadrons had been withdrawn and converted to Operational Training Units instead. It had caused consternation at the time, but had been a shrewd policy; and it was one of the reasons why Bomber Command had been so quick to agree to refrain from unrestricted air warfare and to spend time carrying out reconnaissance and leaflet dropping instead. It had given the command a chance to cut its teeth and for the old hands to train up new blood.
Despite British naval successes at sea, the Norwegian venture was unravelling fast for the Allies. Even if they were now able to secure Narvik and the north of the country, the truth was that German forces were swallowing up much of the southern half. Just how Allied troops were going to keep this planned northern redoubt while the Germans with their much shorter lines of supply held the south was something no one back in London appeared prepared to consider, although there was no denying that securing the northern – and frankly pretty remote – part of Norway made more sense than any venture further south, where the advancing Germans clearly now held all the aces.
What was certainly true was that the only hope of successfully taking and keeping hold of Narvik was by putting as many forces there as possible, something Churchill repeatedly stressed. As he pointed out, at least careful plans had been made for Narvik; Trondheim was altogether a much more speculative proposition. However, the French were urging that troops be sent to Trondheim to take both the port and the railway that went right across the peninsula. Both Halifax and Chamberlain agreed to this plan. Troops would still land at Narvik, but Trondheim would be the main effort.
British troops were thus steaming towards this land of mountains and fjords, with the situation highly fluid and with plans still being changed even as the men were being shipped over the North Sea. While Brigadier D. R. Morgan and the first few battalions of 148th Brigade were making the crossing, he was given yet another set of orders. 'Your role to land Åndalsnes,' the signal told him brusquely, 'then operate northwards and take offensive action against the Germans in the Trondheim area.'
It made it sound so simple. But Morgan had just one lightly equipped brigade, some of whom, like Lofty Kynoch, were still in Scotland, and had no air cover and no tanks or vehicles. With these Territorials, he was expected to defeat the German forces now surging up the Gudbrandsdal Valley in central Norway, then, having seen them off, turn on Trondheim. It was ludicrously over-optimistic.
This latest change of plan had come at the behest of the Norwegians, whom the Allies were now keen to oblige, even though fire-fighting and dissipating forces was never an ideal military policy. The Norwegian Army had few Regulars and so, like France, was dependent on a mass mobilization. However, such had been the surprise of the attack that these plans had also been thrown into confusion and many of those who might have answered the call found themselves occupied before they had the chance. As it was, the entire Army was infantry with neither tanks nor anti-tank guns. One of the last acts of the Government as it had fled Oslo had been to sack the Commander-in-Chief and replace him with Oberst – hastily promoted to General – Otto Ruge, who was younger, more vigorous and determined to fight on. His men had been battling their way through the centre of the country, delaying the German advance but little more. It was his appeal to the British military attaché that had brought about the latest change of plan; 148th Brigade was to help the Norwegians block the German advance north. The reason for focusing on the town of Dombås was that German paratroopers had landed there on 14 April. The Norwegians were battling hard against these isolated German troops, but Ruge wanted British help and as quickly as possible.
One of those trying to resist the Germans was Gunnar Sonsteby, who with a friend had decided that even though Nazi swastikas were fluttering over Oslo, they would head out of the city and join the fight. On Friday the 11th, they had taken a train – which amazingly was still running – and, armed with their skis, had headed to Grua, some thirty miles to the north of Oslo. There they met up with Lieutenant Philip Hansteen, a reservist, at his mountain hut. The following day, Friday, 12 April, with more than a dozen now gathered with Hansteen, they pushed north again, to Brandbu, on the edge of Lake Randsfjord, where there was a depot acting as a mustering station. By the evening of the next day, Saturday, there were more than a thousand men, who were hastily organized into makeshift military units.
Sonsteby was told to remain with Lieutenant Hansteen, his men now formed into a special ski company of four platoons of thirty men each; Sonsteby was put into 4 Platoon under Hansteen's brother, Axel. So began for Sonsteby and these men a long, desperate retreat. 'We continually saw burned farms and blown bridges,' noted Sonsteby, 'the latter the act of our withdrawing forces, the former the vengeful work of the Germans.'
Meanwhile, the rest of 148th Brigade was making its way across the North Sea. Late on 20 April, Lofty Kynoch and the second half of the 2/5th Leicesters finally set sail, on yet another ship, not from Rosyth or even Leith, but Aberdeen in the north-west of Scotland. The following afternoon, as the ship rolled in a rising swell, Kynoch was awoken from a fitful sleep to learn that the Cedarbank, with all their equipment stored aboard, had just been torpedoed. Clambering to his feet, he looked across the water to see the vessel slip beneath the waves amid a swirl of foam. Moments later there was a huge explosion that shook every timber and rivet on their own ship and caused a hum of consternation from the men. It was a depth charge from one of the destroyers escorting them; on this occasion, the U-boat's firing pistols had obviously worked. 'Whatever else had been on the Cedarbank,' wrote Kynoch, 'we now had only our rifles, a few anti-tank rifles and Bren guns to face the enemy with, also the clothes we stood up in.' He had about a hundred rounds for his rifle, and that was it.
They finally reached Åndalsnes at around 8 a.m. on the morning of 22 April. Little did they realize that the situation in Norway was now even worse.
CHAPTER 18
The Go-for-Broke Gamble
THE GERMAN ARMY command may have been sidelined over Norway and Denmark, but they most certainly were not over Case YELLOW. At OKH headquarters in Zossen, the Chief of Staff and chief planner, General Franz Halder, had been tirelessly making preparations. After his somewhat Damascene volte-face in February, he had continued to prepare for von Manstein's two-fisted assault.
Speed was unquestionably going to be of the essence if Case was to have any prospect of success at all, yet although Halder only belatedly woke up to this realization, the concept of using speed to wrong-foot the enemy was absolutely nothing new at all, and was, if anything, deeply embedded in the Prussian military psyche. Indeed, for all its air of being bold and radical, von Manstein's plan was nothing of the sort. Making a lightning strike in an effort to knock the enemy off balance and force a rapid result was what the Prussians and Germans always did. It was what they did against Denmark in 1864 (and it worked), what they did against Austria in 1866 (it worked again, just), what they did against France in 1870 (worked initially then ran out of steam), and what they did in August 1914 (failed, but only just). It was also what they had done in Poland (very successfully), Denmark (ditto) and Norway (which was looking good so far), and what they planned to do now against France and the Low Countries. The Prussians had coined a term for this rapid operational level of war: Bewegungskrieg. And the goal of Bewegungskrieg was Kesselschlacht, which translated literally as 'cauldron battle', but which really meant a battle of encirclement, in which the enemy would be trapped.
Frederick the Great, the Prussian king whom Hitler so admired, once pointed out that Prussia's wars needed to be short and decisive because in a long drawn-out conflict discipline would falter and their resources would quickly be exhausted. He was spot on, and not much had changed in the intervening years, although under the Nazis there was every chance discipline would not falter quite so readily. But certainly Germany had extremely limited resources, and its location – in the heart of Europe and with a comparatively narrow coastline – meant it had not only few means of securing the necessary shortfall but was also vulnerable to attack from more than one quarter. That other great Prussian military thinker, von Clausewitz, also pointed out that in war there are two means of achieving victory: through a war of exhaustion or a war of annihilation.
Both geographical insecurity and a shortage of natural resources meant German strategy was the same as it had always been: to strike swift and hard and win the day in quick order, which was why the only real option for Prussia/Germany had always been and remained to follow the principles of Bewegungskrieg and Kesselschlacht – and to aim for annihilation of the enemy.
The trouble was, this was easier said than done, not least because their enemies tended to have around the same resources as them, if not more, in terms of men and firepower – and this was certainly the case for the attack in the West about to be unleashed. The key was to make sure the Allies had their forces spread so the Wehrmacht could focus its attack at one point and ensure it concentrated far more forces at that single point than the enemy. This was known as the Schwerpunkt principle.
In essence, then, von Manstein's basic plan was not in the least original, because it rigidly adhered to the principles Prussians had been following for ever; and, in truth, they had no alternative, which is why the Allies, if they had studied their history more carefully and applied their knowledge of Germany's geo-economic situation to a military appreciation, should have been able to anticipate the likely approach their enemy would make. After all, an assault on the Maginot Line made little sense, advancing purely through the Low Countries was very obvious, while a passage through the Ardennes not only had been used in 1870, but was the only real chance the Germans had of achieving tactical surprise. Merely stating that the Ardennes were unpassable, as Gamelin had declared, without ever really working this claim through, was more reckless than the plan itself.
Where Case YELLOW was highly original, however, was in the means by which the spearhead was going to reach the Schwerpunkt – the main point of attack – and then engage the enemy, and for that, the man responsible above all others was not really von Manstein, but rather General Heinz Guderian – the panzer general who had so impressed Leutnant Hans von Luck two years earlier.
The 51-year-old Guderian was not only a dynamic soldier, but also a deep thinker on military matters and a couple of years earlier had published Achtung Panzer!, a treatise on the use of tanks in modern warfare. Von Manstein had since been sidelined but Guderian had not, and was proving instrumental in breathing new, modern life into the old Prussian principles of Bewegungskrieg. Accepted doctrine in the German Army was that tanks could not advance without infantry support. What Guderian was suggesting was that his panzer divisions would carry the motorized infantry with them as part of the division, enabling them to operate entirely independently of the infantry divisions, who, reliant on their feet or horse-drawn carts, would slow them down. Guderian and his staff were therefore working on how to move mechanized divisions of tanks, trucks and other motorized vehicles both swiftly and in such a way that surprise was maintained until the last minute. Then, once they reached the Meuse, armour, infantry and artillery would work together and in harmony with aerial artillery in the form of the Luftwaffe, and controlled and commanded primarily by radio communication. No other side had thought to construct an armoured division in such a way.
In other words, it was the plans they were developing to achieve this breakthrough that were radical and new, not the concept per se.
On 17 March, Guderian and the senior commanders of Armeegruppe A had attended a conference with Hitler at the Reich Chancellery. Guderian was the last of the Army and corps commanders to brief Hitler on his plan. He told the Führer and his Army Group superiors that on the fourth day after the advance began, he would reach the Meuse. By the end of the fifth, he would have established a bridgehead across it.
'And then what are you going to do?' Hitler asked.
'Unless I receive orders to the contrary, I intend on the next day to continue my advance westwards.' He added that in his opinion he should drive straight to the Channel coast.
General Busch, who commanded 16. Armee, which consisted almost entirely of infantry divisions, said, 'Well, I don't think you'll cross the river in the first place!' In saying this, he was speaking for almost all Armeegruppe A's senior officers, including its commander, Feldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt.
Hitler, visibly tense, turned to Guderian, waiting for his response.
'There's no need for you to do so in any case,' Guderian replied. The last thing he wanted was slow, cumbersome infantry divisions lacking almost any mechanized transportation getting in his way.
Not only was most of Armeegruppe A against the plan, but so too was much of Armeegruppe B. Its commander, Generaloberst von Bock, called in on Halder in his Berlin apartment and pleaded with him to abandon it entirely. 'You will be creeping by ten miles from the Maginot Line with the flank of your breakthrough,' he told Halder, 'and hope the French will watch inertly! You are cramming the mass of the tank units together into the sparse roads of the Ardennes mountain country, as if there were no such thing as air power! And you then hope to be able to lead an operation as far as the coast with an open southern flank two hundred miles long, where stands the mass of the French Army!' This, he added, transcended the 'frontiers of reason'.
Von Bock was talking a lot of sense. On paper, it looked hopelessly optimistic. And von Bock knew, as Halder knew, that of the 135 divisions earmarked for the offensive, large numbers were far from being the elite, crack units the rest of the world seemed to think they were. In the entire Army, there were only ten panzer and six fully mechanized divisions. These mere sixteen divisions were the modern, fully equipped units of the German Army. In the spearhead that would thrust through the Ardennes, there were only ten such modernized divisions, divided into three corps, of which Guderian's had three panzer divisions. Since there were not enough roads through the Ardennes for all three corps to advance at once, the movement would have to be done in stages.
And yes, the panzer divisions were modern and well equipped, but the majority of their panzers were hardly the latest in cutting-edge tank design. Only Panzer IIIs and IVs had decent-sized guns, and there were only 627 of them. The remaining 1,812 were Mk Is, with only their machine guns, Mk IIs, which had a rather feeble 20mm gun, and Czech T35s and T38s, which also had below-par firepower. In contrast, the Allies could call on some 4,204 tanks, almost double the number in the German Army. Of these, a significant number were bigger, better armed and better armoured than anything the Germans had.
Of the rest of the German Army, only a quarter were active-duty troops that could be used in the first wave of the offensive – that is, Regular peacetime units reinforced with reservists, such as Siegfried Knappe's 87. Division. The second wave consisted of mostly younger fully trained reservists. After that were those reservists who had only been cursorily trained. Then there were the Landwehr units – Territorials – who were mostly older, veterans of the Great War and barely trained at all since 1918.
This meant that only half of all German soldiers had had more than a few weeks' training, while more than a quarter were over forty. Nazi propaganda had kept this rather startling reality close to its chest.
In Italy, Mussolini had now put down on paper a 'secret report' summarizing the situation and outlining future military strategy. In effect, it was a kind of war directive, because he had now convinced himself utterly that Italy had no choice but to intervene. To act like puttane – whores – with the West was not an option; neutrality would simply downgrade Italy for a century; it was absurd to think they could simply sit by and watch. The only conceivable course was a war parallel to that of Germany and which would unshackle them from their Mediterranean prison.
This report was issued to his senior commanders at the beginning of April, but although Maresciallo Badoglio showed a small inkling of offensive spirit, there was hardly much enthusiasm from anyone else, which came spectacularly to the fore at a meeting of service chiefs held in Rome on 9 April – the same day the Germans were invading Denmark and Norway. Maresciallo Rodolfo Graziani, the grizzled Chief of Staff of the Army, was appalled, particularly when it became clear that there was no suggestion of any joint operations with Germany. 'But we won't be able to do anything in that case,' he complained to Badoglio, 'even if France collapses.' Amiragglio Domenico Cavagnari, the Chief of Staff of the Navy, was equally despairing. The enemy, he said, would place one fleet at Gibraltar and another at Suez, 'and we shall all asphyxiate inside'. Generale Pricolo of the Air Force, no less unenthusiastic, warned that too many illusions were being entertained about what might be achievable. All agreed that an offensive against the British from Libya was impossible, while even in Abyssinia the current situation was precarious – and that was just dealing with current unrest from native Africans.
The only person slightly thawing about Mussolini's bellicose rhetoric was Count Ciano. Contemptuous about the Allied response in Norway, he was also scenting a whiff of desperation in the escalating diplomatic efforts from France and Britain. On 24 April, a personal letter for Mussolini from Reynaud was presented to Ciano by François-Poncet, the Ambassador, inviting the Duce to meet the French Prime Minister. 'Mussolini read the letter with pleasure and scorn,' noted Ciano, adding, 'it is a strange message, a little melancholy and a little bragging.' Mussolini refused the invitation with a reply that was, Ciano recorded with ill-concealed glee, 'cold, cutting and contemptuous'.
Yet however contemptuous he may have been feeling towards the French as a whole, Ciano was certainly quite content to shower attention on one particular French woman. The film star Corinne Luchaire was making a new film in Rome called L'Intruse and was thoroughly enjoying being made a fuss of by Roman society, and not least Ciano, who took her to dinner and gave her the full broadside of Italian aristocratic charm. Luchaire, for her part, was flattered but refused to give in to him, knowing his reputation as a philanderer. None the less, she thought him handsome and good company. 'I was proud to go everywhere arm in arm with the Italian Foreign Minister,' she noted. 'Our friendship got me prestigious invitations.'
But although she never once talked politics or was particularly aware of the increasingly strained relationship between her country and Italy, she was none the less playing a dangerous game for one quite so beautiful and famous and, as a result, so often photographed and written about. One day, she was taken to a show-jumping competition, which was eventually won by the German team. Conscious that many eyes were looking at her to see how she would react, she decided that since it was only a sporting event, it would be acceptable to applaud. But then a swastika was raised, the German national anthem began to be played and the entire crowd stood and gave the Nazi salute. Suddenly, she was aware how compromised she had become. 'I, only, remained sitting among thousands of people standing up,' she recorded. 'My behaviour was noticed.'
And after that, the invitations dramatically dried up. Ciano no longer came calling or sent her flowers. The press turned on her, and she was strongly advised to return to France. The film, however, was not yet finished, so she remained in Italy. It would prove a bad mistake.
Back in Paris, the political and military leadership was as fractious as ever. Reynaud had been desperately trying to instil some resolve and fighting spirit and, more importantly as far as he was concerned, a sense of urgency. Back on 30 March, Amiral Darlan had warned Gamelin to get ready for swift action in Norway, quite sensibly pointing out that Germany was unlikely to stand idly by once British mining operations began. A few days later, Reynaud had also asked him to be ready to move at a moment's notice; three days later, on 8 April, the Prime Minister had rung him to tell him of German shipping movements towards Norway.
Yet, as far as Reynaud could make out, Gamelin had done absolutely nothing, and at an emergency meeting of the War Cabinet on 12 April he tried desperately to secure both a greater and swifter reinforcement of Norway. The trouble was, the operation was largely a British one, and such was the structure of the French military machine, it was simply incapable of acting quickly. The petty squabbles, the poisonous personality clashes, the fact that Reynaud was stymied by the cabal of Radicals controlled by Daladier, and the inherently backward-thinking French military machine all worked directly against quick-fire military action. It wasn't so much that Général Gamelin was not willing to act, but that he was simply unable to do so with the urgency Reynaud was demanding. As it happened, after the emergency meeting, he offered his resignation to Daladier – not Reynaud, who would have accepted it – but it was refused.
So the meeting got them no further. A frustrated Reynaud had to sit back and listen to reports showing that in this contest of speed between Germany and the Allies, Hitler was winning hands down.
On 22 April, the British war leaders arrived in Paris for a further meeting of the Supreme War Council. That day, at the Quai d'Orsay, the mood was fairly buoyant. The first troops had landed near Narvik a few days earlier, although not in a direct assault on the town as Churchill had requested, but spread out so as to cover the main landing area and approaches to the town, and from where a firm base could be established first. The capture of both Narvik and Trondheim was enthusiastically supported, despite the footholds the Germans already had and despite the gobbling up of the southern half of Norway. Even Churchill had warmed to the Trondheim enterprise, although he pushed for, and got, the promise of further chasseurs alpins for Narvik. After Narvik had been taken, air forces were to fly in to establish a firm base. Denying Swedish iron ore to the Germans, it was agreed, was still to be a top priority, which could be achieved by capturing the port through which it passed. For about the first time since discussions had begun about their involvement in Scandinavia, the Supreme War Council appeared to be finally singing pretty much from the same hymn sheet.
The following day, discussion focused on the Western Front and an agreement that the moment the Germans made a move in the West, Allied forces would advance into Belgium, whether the Belgian government agreed to it or not. Reynaud, however, gave a sombre appreciation. The Germans, he told them, now had 190 divisions, of which 150 could be used in the West. Germany, he said, had an advantage in manpower, in artillery and in stocks of ammunition. None of this was true; once again, German projection of military might was clouding judgement, and there is no doubt that it was putting the Allied war leaders into a defensive – not to say demoralized – mindset. Had Hitler, Goebbels or even generals like Halder been flies on the wall, they would have been delighted.
Meanwhile, in Norway, the German troops appeared to be backing up the image so carefully presented by the Nazis, although the opposition in central Norway was weaker than anything they had experienced in Poland. It was hardly the fault of the hapless British 148th Brigade, which was appallingly badly equipped, having no mechanized or tank support, almost no guns and no air support. Taking on the advancing Germans with only their rifles, a few Brens and some grenades but with nowhere near enough ammunition even for those meagre weapons, and with ill-trained and equally ill-equipped Norwegians fighting alongside them, was only ever going to end one way.
In truth, the situation was quite hopeless by the time they had finally reached Åndalsnes. Splitting the force originally intended for Narvik and then splitting it again between Namsos and Åndalsnes had merely made an already bad situation much worse. At the same time, to the north, a further brigade, the 146th, had landed at Namsos, but so too had a French demi-brigade of chasseurs alpins. Since the French were also without transport, they remained at Namsos while 146th Brigade then began the march south towards Trondheim. These depleted and poorly equipped troops were made short work of by German Gebirgsjäger, whose own position was strengthened by a landing of reinforcements. The road to Trondheim was now blocked. An evacuation was the only option.
Meanwhile, to the south, the first half of 148th Brigade had managed to reach Dombås, where the Fallschirmjäger had unexpectedly been defeated by the Norwegians, and then head on further south, almost to Lillehammer. This was the largest town in central Norway and by the evening of 21 April, when the first British troops reached the front, it had already fallen. The men were tired, hungry and very badly armed. It was also bitterly cold, with thick snow all around. The men had greatcoats but nothing more.
Lofty Kynoch and the missing halves of the two British battalions reached the small village of Tretten to the north of Lillehammer the following day, 22 April, where the British and Norwegians had hastily retreated to make their next stand. A German bomber circled overhead as they clambered out of the train, then swooped so low that Kynoch could see the pilot as it flew off. Soon after, Messerschmitt 109 fighters appeared, hurtling low over them, strafing them with machine-gun fire. Kynoch found the experience petrifying.
'Geddown and lie flat!' yelled the Company Sergeant Major, as bullets whistled past, snicking through the pine trees around them and kicking up gouges of snow and dirt. Moments later, the fighters were gone.
Of course, this tiny force of British and Norwegian infantry had no chance. More aircraft arrived, this time Stukas. The explosions of the bombs was deafening in the narrow confines of the valley, with smoke and debris fizzing and swirling into the air. Kynoch, totally unprepared from his training for such an eruption of violence, watched the scene with mesmerized terror. He felt barely able to move a muscle. The following morning, 23 April, the Luftwaffe was back.
Around 10.30 a.m., German troops reached the British and Norwegian defenders, blasting their way forward with artillery and mortars and then tanks and infantry, and they were quickly forced back, around a sharp bend in the narrow valley to Tretten itself. Lofty Kynoch, earlier sent on a patrol up into the mountains, had watched with dismay as Norwegian troops valiantly began firing an ancient artillery piece that looked to him more like something from the Napoleonic era.
Later that afternoon, it was all over and the stragglers were falling back. Kynoch and the rest of his patrol had managed to work their way back down to the valley and get a lift on a civilian lorry along with a number of other men, leaving the carnage temporarily behind. What had become of most of their mates, they had no idea. Hungry and freezing cold, Kynoch, for one, felt utterly demoralized and miserable.
Back in London on the evening of 23 April, after the end of the Supreme War Council meeting in Paris, the British contingency learned that while landings at Namsos and Åndalsnes had been unopposed, the attempt to take Trondheim in a pincer movement had failed and that news from central Norway was hardly any better. Jock Colville found the Prime Minister somewhat depressed by the meetings in Paris, less because of the unfolding situation in Norway than by Churchill's evident frustration and accompanying rampages.
'I have an uneasy feeling that all is not being as competently handled as it might be,' scribbled Colville in his diary the following day. It worried him that troops had been sent to the snowy north of Norway without skis or snowshoes, that the judgement of the Chiefs of Staff appeared to be wanting, and that there was an absence of clear, well-thought-through clockwork efficiency. 'Of one thing I am convinced,' he added, 'we make our minds up lamentably slowly and we do not ensure against every eventuality like the Germans do.' A young man he may have been, but Colville was perceptive with regard to Allied failings. Singleness of purpose, decisiveness, clear-headed military thinking and efficiency had been strikingly lacking in the Allied adventure in Norway. It was no wonder it was all going so badly wrong.
By the end of April, it was only Narvik, the original objective, which was still within Allied grasp. The Gebirgsjäger there were effectively surrounded by a combination of British, Norwegian and, with the arrival of the chasseurs alpins on 28 April, French troops. However, because the British and French had been landed at various points around that web of headlands, fjords and inlets, any concerted Allied assault would be difficult, and these problems were compounded by the terrain, heavy snow and freezing conditions. Three thousand men of the French Légion étrangère (Foreign Legion) arrived on 6 May, followed three days later by a brigade of Poles. Here, at least, the Allies had some kind of manpower and material advantage even if they still had no air support – Narvik was well beyond the range of Allied aircraft.
In central Norway, however, British intervention had been disastrous, and the fighting there was all over by the time the French Foreign Legion had arrived at Narvik; it was as though two quite different campaigns were being fought, albeit in different parts of the same country. Lofty Kynoch and the remnants of 148th Brigade had managed to fall back to Åndalsnes, in part thanks to 15th Brigade being thrown into the fray and briefly holding up the German advance. A squadron of British biplanes had been posted to Norway and had landed on a frozen lake, only to be wiped out within two days – one of them was shot down by Helmut Lent in his Me110 Zerstörer. At Åndalsnes, the remaining British troops began to be evacuated on the night of 30 April, but not before the Luftwaffe had pounded the largely wooden town so that it was left burning and with dark smoke pluming thousands of feet into the sky. Lofty Kynoch was one of around 150 men from 148th Brigade to reach the wreck of the town early on the 30th after a long, fraught and repeatedly disrupted forced march and then train journey. They spent two terrible days waiting to be lifted off, hungry and exhausted, watching the town burning and the repeated air attacks, several of which were too close for comfort.
Among the ships steaming to Åndalsnes for the evacuation was HMS Delight, which as part of the screen around the cruiser HMS Manchester was cutting through the glassy-calm waters at some 25 knots. As they entered the fjord, First Lieutenant Vere Wight-Boycott looked in awe at the snow-capped mountains rising sheer from the water's edge. 'Their height, combined with the narrowness of the fjord,' he noted, 'gave one the impression of steaming down a corridor so narrow that there was no room to turn out of it.' They soon came under air attack, but the cruisers and destroyers swiftly responded. Delight's own 3-inch gun opened fire and with the first shot hit a leading plane, which burst into three flaming pieces. The rest of the aircraft then melted away.
Reaching the town, Vere-Boycott was shocked to see the burning remains and the still smouldering pier. Through his binoculars, he wondered how long it was going to take to lift 4,000 men and rather gloomily guessed it would not be done before daylight. However, one ship pulled alongside the pier, then another next to her, and then Delight, and much to his surprise the operation was a lot quicker and smoother than he had imagined. Delight cast off around 1 a.m. and skimmed through the water at 29 knots on the way out.
Delight was not carrying Lofty Kynoch, who managed to board HMS Sheffield and get away. 'I turned and took one last look at the place where we had landed just a few days ago,' wrote Kynoch. 'No pretty houses now, only smouldering black chimney stacks standing erect like ghostly fingers. Over all a black pall of smoke that rose in the air and spilled outwards and upwards over the fjord.' By 2 a.m., it was in German hands.
Only at Narvik, nearly eight hundred miles north of Åndalsnes, was there any hope left for the Allies. This small – but crucial – port was finally within their grasp, although how they would hold on to it once it was captured was another matter.
None the less, German successes elsewhere in Norway had not stopped Hitler from becoming increasingly agitated about Narvik. On 17 April, as it became clear British landings around Narvik had been made successfully, he had urged the Army to evacuate the town; by the following day, he had calmed down, but with the further Allied landings, his anxiety rose to fever pitch once more.
Placated by continued good reports from central Norway, he had been told on 30 April that the campaign had now all but been won. As Warlimont noted, success had been achieved 'in spite of his amateurish interventions'.
Hitler was now ready to launch his assault in the West. After months of planning, after all the delays, soul-searching and long winter months of stockpiling, the moment had at last arrived. The days had lengthened, the weather was good, and the men involved in this huge undertaking were as ready and confident as they were ever going to be.
Yet despite the victories in Poland, Denmark and over much of Norway, Hitler's forces were not as strong as Nazi propaganda liked to make out. There were 157 divisions in the German Army, not 190 as Reynaud had claimed, and 135 divisions available for Case YELLOW. As soon as they crossed into Holland and Belgium, those two neutrals would join the Allies, who together would then have no fewer than 151 divisions. Germany would be attacking with 7,378 artillery pieces, but the French alone had 10,700 and the Allies collectively more than 14,000 – that is, almost double those of the Germans. France alone had a third more tanks than Germany. Even in terms of aircraft, the Allies could call on more planes than the Luftwaffe. It was one thing thundering into militarily weak nations like Poland and Norway, or even defeating poorly equipped and disorganized British infantry operating in snow-covered and mountainous terrain, but quite another to take on such massed forces in their own back yard.
But there was now no other choice. Hitler's invasion of Poland had got Germany into a war it was ill-equipped to fight. A go-for-broke, all-or-nothing gamble was the only chance Germany had of victory.
CHAPTER 19
Attack in the West
AT HALF PAST FOUR in the morning of Friday, 10 May, Hitler's private train, curiously named Amerika, pulled into the tiny station of Euskirchen between Bonn and Aachen and near to the Belgian border. Heading out into the still dark, crisp air, the Führer of Germany and his entourage climbed into a six-wheeled Mercedes limousine and sped off, climbing up to a hilly, wooded region and came to a halt at the mouth of a bunker dug into the rock. This complex, known as Felsennest, was to be Hitler's command post. Some 1,200 feet up, the entrance was hidden but none the less commanded views towards the Belgian border, only twenty miles to the west.
Hitler, at least, was in a buoyant and confident mood. The hour was finally upon him and upon his people. There was now no turning back. Key to the German chances of success would be the speed with which the panzer and motorized divisions in Armeegruppe A could reach the Meuse, around a hundred miles from the German border, get across it, and smash the French line before they had a chance to properly counter-attack.
As one of the principal architects of this plan, General Heinz Guderian was every bit as confident as Hitler that this could be achieved. The key was speed. Guderian had reckoned that to catch the French out, they would have to reach the Meuse in three days and get across it in four. The only way this could be achieved was through intricate planning and sticking rigidly to a very tight timetable, but this was no small challenge and dependent on all too many factors playing out like clockwork.
In fact, there was much that could derail the entire plan. The ten mechanized divisions of Armeegruppe A equated to 39,373 vehicles, 1,222 panzers and a further 545 other tracked vehicles, which, bumper-to-bumper, meant a theoretical march length of around nine hundred miles. These ten divisions had been divided into four different corps groupings. A new and untested group of three panzer corps had been formed for the main spearhead under the command of General von Kleist, of which Guderian's three-division corps was leading the way. The first potential problem was one of generalship. Commanding Armeegruppe A was Feldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt, who, as Guderian had discovered in planning meetings, had little understanding of panzer tactics and their capabilities. General von Kleist, also above Guderian in the chain of command, had a similar lack of understanding and repeatedly failed to grasp the essence of the plan at all. Both were conspicuously more cautious than Guderian, who had done all he could to prepare his own corps with as little interference as possible.
The second potential hazard was that the four corps had different objectives but had to pass through the dense Ardennes forest using just a handful of roads. The possibility of immense gridlock was only too obvious.
A further problem was that before any of these spearheads reached the Meuse, they had to overcome a number of obstacles. Panzerkorps Guderian had to cross the Luxembourg border barriers, then the Belgian fortification line, and after that the second line of Belgian defences. Then there was the River Semois to cross, which was bound to be defended, and finally they had to face the French border fortifications, which stood some six miles from the Meuse. None of these were expected to offer too much resistance but it only needed one of them to hold up the advance for any period of time, and the whole timetable would be shot to pieces.
The scepticism of men like von Kleist and others was entirely understandable.
Further to the north, the men of Armeegruppe B were also preparing to attack. The plan was that they would thrust into Holland and Belgium and draw the Allies forward, hopefully hoodwinking them into thinking this was the main attack. At 5 a.m., having already roused the men of 24. Artillery Battalion, Leutnant Siegfried Knappe was astride his horse, Schwabenprinz, and reporting to his CO, Major Raake, that all the batteries were ready. Based in the Eifel region, they would be supporting 87. Infanteriedivision as it advanced into Belgium. Also ready to move out were the men of Flakregiment 22, who had been ordered to advance into Luxembourg having first crossed the River Mosel. Among the men was Günther Sack, an eighteen-year-old Kanonier of the lowest rank, who had only joined 2. Battalion on 1 April. A young man full of ardent zeal, he had been initially placed on to an officer-training programme but attached to a heavy flak regiment. This, he felt, did not have the right caché for someone of his ambitions; flak artillery pieces were defensive weapons and he desperately wanted to prove himself in action. With this in mind, he had applied to leave the Luftwaffe – which was responsible for all anti-aircraft units – and join the Waffen-SS Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler instead. Much to his great disappointment, however, this had been refused. Piqued, he had abandoned his officer training and insisted on transferring to light flak; at least that way there was a chance of getting closer to the front, or so he hoped. Since joining 2. Battalion, however, he had been bored witless. There had been no aircraft to shoot and monotonous daily duties: practising changing overheated barrels, moving the guns into position and other routine exercises. Now, on the morning of 10 May, however, there was at long last the promise of action.
Leading the way was the Luftwaffe, which was concentrated in the northern area both to help maintain the deception plan and also to hit as many Allied airfields as possible in the hope that a large proportion of enemy aircraft could be destroyed before they got airborne. Furthermore, giving the impression of concentrated might would also help to cow the enemy. Newsreels had been pumping out footage of massed bomber and Stuka strikes, and it was essential to maintain this impression.
Among the Stuka units was I.St/186, which had not taken part in the Norwegian campaign. Commanding the second Staffel was Hauptmann Helmut Mahlke, twenty-six years old, and their target was the hangars and ground installations of the French air base at Metz-Frescaty. They were due to hit them early, at 6 a.m. It was Mahlke's first combat sortie, and the night before he had struggled to sleep, worried about how he would perform and whether he had done all that was possible to prepare his squadron.
They had been up at 4 a.m. and just under an hour later were walking to their machines. The ground crew helped the pilots and gunners into their harnesses, pulling the straps tight, and then went to stand by the starting handles. As they turned them the engines began to whine, slowly at first, then faster until the mechanic yelled and Mahlke switched on the ignition and the engine erupted into life with a roar. Around him, nearly thirty others burst into life as well.
Mahlke taxied out, and soon after they were airborne and the entire formation was crossing the River Moselle and flying on, the countryside beneath them growing with the light of dawn. At last, Mahlke spotted the target and called out on his radio, 'Anton 2 to Anton: target on the port beam below!'
The Gruppenkommandeur now led them into line astern for the attack formation and on a wide left-hand turn so they could dive on the target against the wind, as prescribed. Metz's flak guns now opened fire – a few grey puffs staining the sky. Mahlke, his tension rising, watched the first Stukas make their dives.
Then it was the turn of his own Staffel. Bomb switches on, radiator flaps closed, dive brakes extended, close throttle, drop the left wing, and then he was putting the machine into an eighty-degree dive and the ground began hurtling towards him. He could see his target and kept it in the cross-hairs. The airship hangar – his own target – now came rushing towards him at a terrifying rate. Two thousand metres, one thousand five hundred, one thousand, then at five hundred metres he pressed the bomb button – a slight jolt – and next he was pulling out of the dive and into a climbing left-hand turn. His bomb had hit almost dead centre, but nothing seemed to happen, until suddenly he could see the sides of the hangar bulge as though the whole building was being inflated. A moment later the entire hangar collapsed in on itself. All around, the depot was now engulfed in swirling smoke.
They touched back down at their new forward base at Ferschweiler at 6.40 a.m. only to discover the ground crew had yet to catch up. Even so, this first mission, over which Mahlke had so agonized, had been a complete success. 'The general feeling,' he wrote, 'was that we had given them a very nasty wake-up call.'
Hajo Herrmann and his fellow crews in KG4 were also busy from the outset, but so too were the transport planes as they ferried Fallschirmjäger to drop on key bridges, airfields and the Belgian fort at Eben-Emael. Among them was Gefreiter Martin Pöppel, part of 1. Battalion, 1. Fallschirmjägerregiment, whose task was to capture intact an important bridge at Dordrecht, to the south-east of Rotterdam.
Glancing out of the window of the 'Tante Ju', as the transports were known, Pöppel thought the large number of aircraft looked like flocks of birds gathering in the autumn. Stuka dive-bombers flew below them, fighters above. A few jolts as bursts of anti-aircraft fire peppered the sky, and then, at 5.10 a.m., it was time to jump. Suddenly, Pöppel was out, floating down peacefully, not a line of tracer in sight, and landing safely away from the many ditches that criss-crossed the flat landscape. Unfastening his 'chute, he ran towards the containers to help gather weapons and radio equipment, and together he and the rest of his company quickly set up HQ in a hastily abandoned farmhouse where there was still-warm tea and buttered bread on the table.
On the banks of the River Dordtsche Kil at 's-Gravendeel south-east of Rotterdam, Korporaal Gerrit den Hartog and the rest of 28th Infantry Regiment, part of Group Kil, hurriedly scrambled out of their cots and, still dazed from sleep, dressed and grabbed their rifles. They had heard the sound of aircraft but had initially assumed they were heading to attack Britain, so it was a shock when they began dropping hordes of paratroopers and dive-bombing.
The Dutch Army was ill-equipped for battle. Holland had not fought a war in nearly 150 years and had determinedly held fast to its neutrality in the last war. It had no tanks and little artillery, and most of what it did have was horribly out of date. Gerrit den Hartog had been a reservist, and at thirty-one had left his wife, four young children and market-gardening business at the outbreak of war, even though Holland remained neutral and refused all offers of alliances or aid. Now, eight months on, the country's neutrality counted for nothing.
The Army, commanded by General Henri Winkelman, had recognized that, in the event of a German invasion, there was no point in trying to defend the whole country. Instead, and with French help, it would protect the western group of islands on which were the largest of the Dutch cities. It was hoped that the wide rivers separating them from the rest of the Netherlands would provide a natural defensive barrier; these sea rivers and canals had traditionally been the key to Dutch defence. No one in the Dutch command had counted on airborne forces swooping down on them, however.
Den Hartog was a quiet man, devoted to his wife and children, and although a qualified marksman was not, by nature, remotely martial. Most of his fellows were similarly older reservists and in no way equipped to take on highly motivated and well-trained young Fallschirmjäger. In fact, none of them had even been issued with ammunition, and within a very short time the Zwijndrecht bridges between Dordrecht and Rotterdam, just to the north of their positions, had been captured and communications with the garrison in Dordrecht cut.
Den Hartog's commander, Major Ravelli, was promised reinforcements but they hadn't appeared. In the afternoon, the 28th crossed the River Kil and formed a bridgehead at Wieldrecht, and in the evening the promised support finally arrived in the form of two sections of heavy machine guns. Later, as dusk fell, they pressed forward towards Amstelwijk, hoping to link up with other Dutch forces. Instead, they found a deserted command post littered with dead Dutch troops. So far, den Hartog had heard a lot of bombing and shooting, and had seen a mass of enemy troops dropping from the sky, but he had yet to engage the enemy at all. What exactly was going on was hard to tell, but it was clear the battle was not going well for the Dutch.
Meanwhile, the Allied air forces were desperately trying to meet this threat from the air. At Nivelles airfield in Belgium, the pilots of the country's Air Force had been woken in the very early hours. It was around 1 a.m. that Jean Offenberg, a 23-year-old pilot in 4e Escadrille of 2e Régiment de l'Air, had been roused. 'Go to hell,' Offenberg told his friend, Alexis Jottard, the man shaking him awake. 'If you can't find a better joke than that, go back to bed.'
'No, it's not a joke,' Jottard insisted. 'Get up. It's the real thing.' Reluctantly, and sensing a ring of truth in Jottard's words, Offenberg got out of bed and put on his sweater and flying suit. Outside, in the shadows, Siraut, the duty officer, confirmed the worst. 'It's war,' he said. They were to be ready to fly at first light and to evacuate the airfield, as rehearsed, in case the enemy, as expected, bombed it. They were to move to an emergency airstrip at Brusthem near Saint-Trond.
At 4.30 a.m., flying in their open-cockpit Italian Fiat CR.42 biplanes, they were at 3,000 feet over Gossoncourt, looking down at the even more antiquated Fairey Foxes dispersed around the perimeter, and then they were landing at Brusthem as planned. Nivelles, they soon discovered, had already been bombed. 'Don't worry,' Offenberg told Jottard. 'They're bound to bomb this too. We've only got to wait like children. I should like to go and have a good bash at those bastards!'
Soon after, he got his wish. Taking Jottard and another pilot, Maes, with him, the three took off. As they slowly climbed, Offenberg wondered how he would feel when he finally met a German aircraft for the first time. He did not have to wait long, for suddenly, off to port, he could see a twin-engine bomber – a Dornier, he recognized – with its distinct black cross and swastika. His heart suddenly beating quicker, he waved to his two comrades only to see Maes already diving away without waiting for orders as instructed. Then Jottard was pointing furiously and there, up ahead, Offenberg saw a formation of aircraft stacked up. Messerschmitts. In what seemed like moments, they were among them and Offenberg was diving between them, bullets from the rear gunner of the Me110 arcing towards him as he fired his own machine guns. Then his starboard machine gun jammed, he pulled out of his dive and found the sky miraculously empty once more, with no sight of Maes, Jottard or even any Messerschmitts…
It was now 6.45 a.m., and Offenberg was at 5,000 feet over the town of Diest when suddenly he spotted another Dornier – or was it the same one? – below him. Quickly checking the skies were clear, he sped down towards it in a shallow dive as the rear gunner from the bomber opened fire, bright sparks rushing towards him like sunlight on a diamond. Offenberg opened fire in turn but the Dornier was escaping, so giving up the chase he headed for home only to run into yet another Dornier approaching him and getting bigger by the second. A dive and a turn and Offenberg was right above him and opening fire with a long burst of his now-cooled machine gun. 'The old Fiat vibrated and bucked from the recoil of that machine-gun,' he noted. 'Spirals of black smoke began to pour from his port engine.' Pulling on the stick to avoid a stream of German tracers, he saw the Dornier bank and dive away, rapidly losing height. At 7.45 a.m., Offenberg landed back at Brusthem, happy to have made it back alive, to have scored his first kill, to see Maes and Jottard in one piece too, and to find the airfield had still not been attacked.
Further to the south-east, at Vassincourt, near Rheims, 1 Squadron of the RAF's Advanced Air Striking Force (AASF), had been woken at 3.30 a.m. and told to make straight for their airfield. Among the pilots was Billy Drake, a 22-year-old career pilot who had joined the RAF four years earlier having seen an advert in a copy of Aeroplane magazine. He'd been rather taken with flying ever since enjoying a brief flight with Alan Cobham's Flying Circus as a boy. Having finished school in Switzerland and determined not to follow his parents' preferred choice of career as a doctor or diplomat, he applied and was accepted.
At 5 a.m., as they sat around the dispersal tent at the airfield, the 1 Squadron pilots were scrambled and ordered to patrol Metz at 20,000 feet. They ran to their Hurricanes and took off in flights, climbing up through the haze until, at around 5,000 feet, they emerged into bright sunshine. The trouble was, the haze below was still sufficiently thick for them to be able to see very little. Eventually, though, B Flight did spot a formation of Dorniers, which they attacked, managing to shoot one down. Drake, however, soon became separated, having been watching some Me109s in the distance. Two of the German fighters attacked him, but he managed to dodge their fire and get on the tail of one of them, which then dived. Following him down, they sped towards Germany and, having crossed the border, the German pilot flew under some power cables, presumably hoping this might shake off his pursuer. Drake followed him, however, opened fire with his eight Browning machine guns and to his satisfaction watched the 109 crash into a wood and explode.
Both France and Britain had been expecting a German offensive in the West for some time. Even though theirs was a modern world, the obvious campaigning season was spring and summer, so since the particularly harsh winter had ebbed away, they had been increasingly aware that Hitler could strike at any moment. Even so, Hitler's offensive could not have come at a worse moment for the Allies, as both Paris and London were gripped by political crisis. In London, matters had begun to boil over on 7 May, when a debate had begun in the House of Commons about the campaign in Norway. In a subsequent vote of confidence the Prime Minister had suffered a crippling moral defeat, which had cut the Government's majority to a mere eighty-one. In peacetime, this would have quickly blown over, but now, in wartime, it looked like a fatal blow. The results had prompted, first, a gasp around the packed House, then pandemonium.
An ashen and rather shell-shocked Chamberlain had walked stiffly from the Commons just after 11 p.m. on 8 May amid jeers and taunts of 'Missed the bus!', 'Get out!' and 'Go, in the name of God, go!' A more sensitive man than his sometimes austere persona suggested, Chamberlain had been profoundly humiliated by events.
In the corridors of Westminster the general opinion was that Chamberlain would now have to go; he had always been unpopular with the British left, including an increasingly powerful trade union movement. Nor had he made any effort to woo leading Labour members of Parliament; there had certainly been no effort to create a wartime coalition. Thus there were many now only too happy to seize the chance to oust him. Despite this, the 71-year-old Prime Minister had woken early on Thursday morning, 9 May, determined to fight his corner. As the day wore on, however, it became increasingly clear to him that his premiership was over. The damage was too great, and the mood for change had swung too far against him. But who would take over?
Most felt that Lord Halifax was the obvious choice. A former Viceroy of India, a hugely experienced politician and a man widely respected for his sound judgement, Halifax was certainly top of Chamberlain's list as successor. The other leading Tories were either too young, lacking a sufficient following, too unpopular or too inexperienced, but Halifax, it was widely felt, would be safe, dependable and a voice of calm reason in the traumatic days that seemed likely to lie ahead.
However, Halifax was not quite as suitable as at first he appeared. He was not much interested in military matters and although, unlike Chamberlain, he had served in the First World War, he had spent most of his army career in a staff position. It was certainly fair to say he lacked the modern soldier's perspective. Moreover, he was a peer, which meant he could not sit in the House of Commons; someone else would have to run that side of things. In fact, the very thought of becoming PM at this difficult time had brought on a psychosomatic bout of nausea, and he told Chamberlain that morning that he would be very reluctant to take over the reins.
There was one other possible candidate for the post. Winston Churchill, back in the Cabinet since the outbreak of war, had all the military credentials Halifax lacked, as well as a stack of political experience. He was fascinated and energized by war. He had fought at the Battle of Omdurman, had taken part in the Boer War, had served in India and had commanded a battalion in France in the last war. Yet while this rich experience was undoubtedly to his credit, there were many who viewed him as a maverick, inconsistent and hot-headed; he drank too much; smoked too much. His methods were unorthodox. And there was mud on him he had been unable to shake off: he had been the architect of the disastrous Dardanelles campaign of 1915, and Chancellor during the General Strike of 1926. In more recent times, he had fought hard against the Government over Indian independence and against Chamberlain's appeasement policy with Germany; he had sided with Edward VIII during the abdication crisis of 1936, which had further distanced him from the establishment. And although he had largely avoided censure during the two-day debate, there were many – Jock Colville included – who felt he was more to blame for the failure of the land campaign in Norway than Chamberlain. For all his enormous energy, drive and undoubted oratorical skills, he was widely regarded as a man lacking sound judgement. A man unsuited to the highest office. At the very least, making Churchill Prime Minister would be a big risk.
Later that afternoon, at another meeting, this time with Churchill included as well as Halifax, Chamberlain told them his mind was made up; he would resign but would be happy to serve under Halifax or Churchill. Halifax, whose stomach ache now started anew, repeated his reluctance to take over, citing the impotence he felt he would have as a peer while Churchill ran defence and, effectively, the Commons.
And this was the crux of the issue. Halifax, rather than holding no ambition for office, believed he would merely be a lame-duck Prime Minister while Churchill took effective control. Far better for the country, he believed, if Churchill was PM while he, as Foreign Secretary, acted as a restraining influence from within the Cabinet. Chamberlain acquiesced; so long as the Labour contingent agreed to serve under Churchill, the transfer of power would be made. But as the Germans launched their assault in the West, confirmation had still not been received; on that day of days, Britain's political leadership remained in turmoil. Not until the evening would Churchill finally be confirmed as the new Prime Minister of Great Britain.
Across the Channel, Paul Reynaud had also offered his resignation the previous day, just seven weeks into his premiership. The cause, once again, had been the ever-widening split between him and former PM but still Minister of National Defence and War, Édouard Daladier. Reynaud had been determined to put some life into Général Gamelin, whom he blamed for the painfully slow response to the Norwegian campaign. Failure in Norway was bad enough, but the speed with which the Germans had moved did not augur well. What if Germany should attack France? Would Gamelin's forces also be too slow to respond to that? It was this slow, methodical approach to war that Reynaud was desperate to change. In identifying this as a malaise of the French Army, he was quite right, as Capitaine André Beaufre had been increasingly aware ever since being part of the Anglo-French mission to Moscow the previous August. The trouble was, it was rather too late to do anything about it. Sacking Gamelin might only make matters worse, not better.
At any rate, after long difficult weeks banging his head against a brick wall and finding himself almost powerless to do anything, Reynaud had decided he needed to force the issue. The previous day, he had called the Cabinet together to demand Gamelin's resignation. As expected, Daladier had refused to accept the move, so Reynaud had decided to enact his plan. He would resign his Government in the hope that President Lebrun would ask him to re-form another one, this time with the Prime Minister as Minister of National Defence and War, not Daladier. Then he could sack Gamelin without further ado.
Reynaud had been expecting to see Lebrun the following day but then, in the early hours of the morning, 10 May, had come the news that his move had, like the French and British in Norway, been too late. His own resignation and the sacking of Gamelin were now out of the question.
'General,' wrote Reynaud to Gamelin that morning. 'The battle has begun. One thing only counts: to win the victory. We shall all work in unison to this end.' Gamelin wrote in reply in full agreement: 'France alone is of importance.'
Capitaine André Beaufre was awoken that morning, 10 May, by the sound of bombs. In fact, the German attack had not come as a complete surprise as there had been intelligence reports from Belgium that suggested something was afoot the previous evening and an order to stand to had been issued to all French troops. Beaufre had spent the last few months working with Général Aimé Doumenc, who had been part of the Moscow mission the previous summer and was now the commander of GHQ Land Forces, based in a Rothschild chateau at Montry on the River Marne. This lay roughly halfway between Georges's North-East Front HQ and Gamelin's headquarters at Vincennes in Paris. The creation of this third major headquarters was another layer of totally unnecessary bureaucracy, drawing on key members of Georges's staff and breaking up teams who had been working perfectly well. GHQ Land Forces was designed to prepare elaborate orders – and also to place a check on Georges. At the same time, both Army intelligence and the operations staff were also split up between Georges's HQ and this new one under Doumenc. Transport and supply were taken completely from Georges's HQ and placed under Doumenc. None of this made any sense whatsoever, especially for an army that relied so heavily on telephone and telegraph – and not radio – for communication.
With the sound of bombs falling, Beaufre was sent to report to Gamelin at Vincennes and arrived there at 6.30 a.m. By this time, the Commander-in-Chief had already put the great plan of attack into action and ordered his forces to start advancing into Belgium to meet the enemy. The move into Belgium had not been made lightly. There were certainly advantages, as his troops would be swelled further by the thirty divisions of the Dutch and Belgian armies. It also meant fighting clear of France and its northern industrial area. On the other hand, if they stayed in France, they would get the benefit of well-prepared defences.
Furthermore, Gamelin had had to decide where the attack was most likely to fall. It was true he had millions of men, but the Germans, in attacking, could concentrate their forces and the trick was to be able to meet any attack with similar strength. He had discounted an enemy assault on the Maginot Line, but also believed a thrust through the Ardennes, with its deep valleys, limited roads and thick forests, unlikely. The Ardennes, Gamelin had declared, was 'Europe's best tank obstacle'. This left an advance through the Low Countries, which is what the Germans had done in 1914, and it was on this assumption that Gamelin had made his plans. One version, known as 'Plan E', was to advance a short way, to the River Escaut. A second version, 'Plan D', was to see his troops advance to the River Dyle – around eighty miles. It would mean a bit of a logistical headache but could be done. In March, an addition to the plan had been made, known as the Breda Variant. This would see French troops thrust further north to Antwerp to link up with the Dutch. On paper, this seemed like a small addition, but logistically it was a major change. Breda was twice as far from the French border as it was from the German, and so it was a race Gamelin could not hope to win. It also required a lot more manpower. In the basic Plan D, ten French and five British divisions would advance to the Dyle. The Breda Variant required a further fifteen and the movement of the entire French 7e Armée – a force Général Georges had intended to keep in reserve.
Be that as it may, it was the Breda version of Plan D that was now being put into effect. And as Beaufre reached Vincennes, he found Gamelin striding up and down, humming, with a pleased look on his face. The signs were that the Germans were advancing through the Low Countries, just as Gamelin had predicted.
The newly promoted Capitaine René de Chambrun had also been awoken that morning by the sound of battle, although in his case it was a nearby battery of anti-aircraft guns. He had recently been promoted to captain and posted as a British liaison officer, first to British headquarters near Arras and then had almost immediately been told to report to 151st Brigade, part of 50th Division, for a few days pending the arrival of a further British division, at which point he would join this new staff instead. On the morning of 10 May, he was based in a family home in the village of Don, some ten miles south of Lille and in among the coalfield villages rebuilt since the end of the last war. Around about were old German bunkers, now mostly reclaimed by grass and weeds.
The firing of the guns made him sit up with a jolt. He could hear the tiles on the roof rattling from the vibration, then, as he quickly dressed, he heard the drone of bombers followed by the lighter roar of fighter aircraft and the rat-a-tat of machine guns. Downstairs, the family he was billeted with were gathered around their wireless set, still in pyjamas and nightgowns, listening to Belgian radio. Moments later, a deafening explosion could be heard nearby, shattering the window panes. Chambrun rushed outside and saw in a field a few hundred yards away the burning remains of a German Heinkel 111 and three airmen floating down in their parachutes. Clutching his revolver, he ran towards the nearest and, along with some British and French troops, captured the man, a young, blond pilot.
All three men were then taken to brigade HQ in the village and there Chambrun questioned them. 'The Nazi lieutenant told me that Germany had no grievance against France,' noted Chambrun. 'He stated that Germany's real enemy was Great Britain, the power of which had to be destroyed.' Soon after, as Plan D was put into effect, Chambrun was told the brigade would be moving into Belgium – although not until sunset and then to an area around eight miles south-west of Brussels. Chambrun was to go ahead and help arrange billeting.
The journey was a long and tortuous one. Accompanied by his British driver, Chambrun experienced at first hand the troubles that were to dog the Allies in the days to come as hordes of Belgian civilians tried to flee the cities, towns and villages. This would become known as the 'exode', prompted by a combination of panic, memories of German atrocities during their advance in 1914, and a desire to escape the violence of war and bombing that many believed must surely follow.
Just outside Tournai, only just across the border, Chambrun's car was forced to a traffic-induced standstill. Suddenly, Stuka dive-bombers screeched overhead, then dived down and bombs fell around them. Fortunately, most fell in the fields either side, but one did land on a Belgian family in their car, blowing them to smithereens; it was a chilling real-life demonstration of this terror weapon, already familiar from newsreels of Poland. As they eventually crawled past the wreckage, an old man stopped by Chambrun's car and said, 'Il faut qu'on gagne car c'est pire qu'en quatorze!' We must win because this is worse than fourteen!
They were not the last Stukas Chambrun saw that day, and by the time he reached the village south of Brussels he was already eight hours behind schedule. Having found the burgomaster and seen to the billeting, and pausing for an omelette and beer in an inn, he and his exhausted driver began the tedious journey back. Far from experiencing an ordered and efficient advance, Chambrun had witnessed chaos, confusion and a civilian population in panic. In the preparations for Plan D, for the Breda Variant, and during all the appreciations of what might happen should the Germans attack, little, if any, thought had been given to what might happen if fleeing civilians were to clog the roads. It was already looking like quite a bad oversight.
CHAPTER 20
Race to the Meuse
THE FIRST British troops had moved forward into Belgium at around 10.20 a.m., nearly four hours after the first orders had been issued. Two British corps were to be in the advance, from which three divisions would hold a six-mile stretch of the River Dyle, sandwiched between the French and the Belgians. Commanding II Corps was the bespectacled and rather hawkish General Alan Brooke, fifty-six years old, a fiercely intelligent career soldier who, as a gunner, had survived the last war and built up a reputation for being a first-class planner. He was also something of a Francophile, having been brought up and educated mostly in France, and as a result speaking with the overly pronounced and crisp English accent of a man raised speaking a different tongue.
Like Gamelin, Brooke rather felt they had plenty of time to reach the Dyle and dig in before the Germans might arrive and so spent the morning ensuring everything was fixed and ready before his infantry got going. All seemed well. There had been plenty of enemy aircraft going over, but they were clearly aiming for targets other than the BEF. In the afternoon, II Corps finally set off, the sun high and bright in the sky. 'It was hard to believe,' scribbled Brooke in his diary, 'on a most glorious spring day, with all nature looking quite its best, that we were taking the first steps towards what must become one of the greatest battles in history!'
Meanwhile, the German invasion was going to plan, with the Luftwaffe destroying much of the Dutch Air Force on the ground and almost all the key objectives for the airborne troops being taken as well. At Dordrecht, Martin Pöppel and his comrades had come into contact with Dutch troops, who had begun firing at them from buildings some 500 metres away. When Oberleutnant Schuller asked for volunteers, Pöppel answered the call, and moments later nine men, led by Schuller, began crawling along the ditches and hedgerows until they were near the buildings from where the Dutch were firing. Crawling under a window, Pöppel could see and hear Dutch soldiers shooting wildly from inside, then suddenly a German machine gun opened up, the enemy took cover, and Pöppel, clutching a Luger pistol in one hand and a grenade in the other, ducked down and hurled the grenade through the window, then moved on to the next. With the explosions and screams from inside, Pöppel's comrades charged the building and soon after a white cloth was shown and the entire Dutch position surrendered. 'Sixty-three Dutchmen came out,' noted Pöppel, 'and there were only twelve of us.' None the less, the paratroopers lost several men in the attack – including Schuller, who was mortally wounded. 'We have seen our first men killed,' wrote Pöppel, 'and stand before them in silence.'
Small and large battles had been taking place all across the front, both in the air and on the ground. The Luftwaffe, who had spared the Belgian 4e Escadrille earlier in the day, caught up with them at their new airfield at around 3 p.m. that afternoon, the Stukas with screaming sirens diving down on the men and machines below. Jean Offenberg and his friend Jottard dived for the nearest ditch while bombs fell all around, the ground trembled and the sound of diving bombers and bombs detonating filled their ears. When their attackers had finally gone, there was not a single airworthy aircraft in 3 Squadron left, although their own, in 4e Escadrille, miraculously appeared to be in one piece. It was hardly much cause for joy. News that key bridges had been captured, airfields destroyed and the important fort at Eben-Emael captured was made worse by the news that one of their comrades had been killed. 'Night,' wrote Offenberg, 'fell mercifully on our grief…'
The RAF's 1 Squadron had also been kept busy. They had been pounced on by Me109s as they'd attacked some Dorniers, losing one of their Hurricanes in the process. Back on the ground, the survivors were ordered to move to another airfield at Berry-au-Bac. B Flight took off and Billy Drake managed to help shoot down a Heinkel 111. Landing again, they were attacked once more, although most of the bombs fell wide. Soon after, they took off on yet another patrol. By now the haze had gone and they could clearly see smoke rising from the towns and villages below. Other airfields had also been hit. They finally went to bed, exhausted, as darkness fell. 'There was a feeling that total chaos was reigning,' says Drake. 'Germans were everywhere and we were constantly being bombed.'
René de Chambrun would have no doubt agreed with Drake. It took him all night to travel back to Don, pausing en route to take some wounded children to hospital in Tournai. He finally reached the village only to find the brigade was already on the move and that he was now to report to Alost, the main supply base for the British division due to arrive. The endless congestion of the roads, the frequent air attacks, and the appalling rumours that were circulating and sending the civilian population into a flat spin meant he and his driver did not reach Alost until nightfall on the 11th.
Finally, at long last, he found the divisional camp, spread out around a race course. Setting himself down in the grandstand along with a large number of snoring Tommies, he quickly fell asleep. An hour later, with dawn already spreading, he was awoken again by an air raid on the Brussels suburbs and counted a number of bombers plummeting from the sky.
One of the civilian refugees now clogging the roads was the nineteen-year-old Freddie Knoller, a Viennese Jew who had fled Austria eighteen months earlier following Kristallnacht in November 1938. Austrian Jews had had less time to adjust to the Nazis' draconian anti-Semitic laws than those in Germany; before the Anschluss, Knoller had not personally noticed much evidence of anti-Semitism in Austria. That night, however, he and his family had seen one of their Jewish neighbours thrown out of his flat, down into the courtyard below and killed. From that moment, Knoller's parents had been determined that he and his two older brothers should escape the country. Otto, the oldest, managed to get to Holland then England through a friend with good connections; Eric, the second son, found sponsorship to go to America through the cousins of one of their neighbours; and Freddie had been told he would find help from another cousin of his neighbour who lived in Antwerp, and so it was to Holland that he made his way via an illegal entry across the Dutch border at Aachen.
Despite urging his parents to leave too, they had repeatedly assured him and his brothers that it was the young who were in danger – and so they had remained. Freddie had been the first to leave – still only seventeen at the time, he had been severed from his family and all that he knew and loved. His feelings had been mixed. 'On the one hand,' he wrote, 'I had no idea how I would cope without my parents' guidance or my brothers' comradeship. On the other the prospect of having nobody to tell me what to do was intoxicating.' Leaving his family had been heart-wrenching. They all came to see him off on the train. He was weeping and so was his mother. 'We clung to each other for a long time,' he noted. 'I felt only the utter, incomprehensible desolation of parting.'
He had survived, however; the Apte family in Antwerp had helped him; he had made friends, then realized they were leading him astray and so had discarded them; some summer work had been found in a hotel in a Dutch resort; the Jewish Aid Committee had helped too – Knoller had been far from the only Jewish refugee. His parents had even managed to send him his beloved cello – music had been an important part of his family life.
By the summer of 1939, Holland and Belgium were flooded with Jewish refugees and Knoller had been sent to a refugee camp at Merksplas on the Dutch–Belgian border. At the same time, he had heard from his parents that their application for an American visa had been lost. Soon after, another letter told him they were being forced to return to Poland. Unable to help them, Knoller was miserable with worry about them.
However, he did have his cello, and in February he moved to a new camp at Eksaarde and joined a small orchestra that performed for a refugee audience every weekend.
The German attack brought this existence to an immediate end. Told to head to either Ostend or France and to take nothing but essentials, Knoller had been forced to abandon his cello – it felt as though he were leaving a part of himself and his old family life in Vienna for good. He began heading to the French border, along with the mass of other refugees. Knoller was glad he was on foot and not encumbered with vehicles, wagons and older family members to look after. A German plane flew over, strafing them. Knoller managed to quickly dive out of the way, but others were not so lucky.
Eventually, he reached Tournai and, along with many others, squeezed himself on to a platform at the station, desperately hoping to board a train for France. He had not been there long when the town was attacked by Stukas. Knoller managed to take cover in a piece of concrete piping. He was so terrified, he realized he had wet himself. An entire section of the station was engulfed in flames, and as the bombers departed and the all-clear was sounded, Knoller crawled out and looked around through the smoke and dust at the devastation. The moans of the injured, the screams of others, were terrible to hear. 'As the air cleared,' he recalled, 'we saw bodies, whole and dismembered, lying in pools of blood. I vomited what little food I had in me.'
It was certainly the strength of German air power that dominated on that opening day of the battle. Integrating air power into the initial operation on the ground was a key component of the German assault. Although air power was still comparatively new, the principles developed by the Luftwaffe slotted neatly into the age-old Prussian theories of Bewegungskrieg – the lightning war of movement. Feldmarschall Göring had, like Hitler, arrived near the front by personal train. His one was called Asia and was even more elaborate and ornate. On paper, his air forces had amounted to 5,446 aircraft that morning, but strength on paper was not the same thing as actual strength, and actual strength could be quite different again from operational strength. Hajo Herrmann's III/KG4, for example, now equipped with the heavier and slower but sort-of-dive-bombing-capable Ju88s had an actual strength of thirty-five bombers, but eight were out of action, so the operational strength was twenty-seven. This was quite normal. Almost no unit was fully operational. Furthermore, there were still a large number operating in Norway and yet more held back for home defence. This meant the Luftwaffe had begun its assault in the West with around 1,500 bombers and 1,000 fighters – or, in other words, less than half its strength on paper.
Göring was personally unaware of this – Luftwaffe staff and intelligence officers had learned that it paid to tell the chief what he wanted to hear rather than tedious and unwelcome truths – but the shortfall did not affect the general plan, which was to destroy as much of the enemy air forces as possible and as quickly as possible too. They were confident of doing so too, not least because their intelligence had underestimated the true enemy strength, reckoning the French had under a thousand bombers and fighters and that the RAF, which they calculated had around double that amount, was unlikely to commit all its aircraft to the fighting in France.
In fact, the Allies' strength on paper was much the same as that of the Germans, and while it was true that the French had just under 900 combat aircraft at the front, they did have a further 1,700 combat-ready which could, in theory, be thrown into the fray quite easily. That they were not was a deliberate policy to avoid being attacked on the ground should the Germans launch a surprise attack. On the face of it, this was quite sensible.
German assessment of the RAF was closer to the mark, however. The RAF was divided into three home commands: Coastal, Bomber and Fighter. Aircraft for France had to be drawn from those commands and then placed in a new set-up, known as British Air Forces in France, which was then further split into thirteen squadrons of the BEF Air Component, and the Advanced Air Striking Force (AASF). The former was answerable to General Lord Gort and to the French, while the AASF was not, command and control instead coming under the auspices of Bomber Command. It was a complicated set-up, but in all, that morning, 10 May, the RAF had around 500 combat-ready aircraft. Add to that the combined Dutch and Belgian air forces, and the Allies had good numbers with which to take on the Luftwaffe.
The big advantage the attackers had, however, was not so much their numbers, but the huge benefit of both surprise and choosing when and where to attack. The Dutch and Belgians certainly had no co-ordinated air defence system, but then nor did the French. With almost no radar and no ground controllers, Allied aircraft did not have the means of anticipating where Luftwaffe aircraft might attack and so were left to patrol the skies, often aimlessly, on the off-chance that they might spy an enemy formation. For those on the ground, such as René de Chambrun, it might have appeared as though the skies were black with German planes, but at 15,000 feet up the sky seemed a much bigger place. The furthest a human eye could see an aircraft at was only around three miles. The invasion front covered thousands of square miles. In fact, command and control of the Armée de l'Air was pretty hopeless. Most of its aircraft were modern types and more or less a match for those in the Luftwaffe, but these were divided into Zones d'Opérations, each with its own aircraft and independent command structure. The net result was that it was unable to bring to bear any concentration of force in the way that the Luftwaffe could. In short, the Allies were not best prepared. Having half-decent aircraft wasn't enough.
One person witnessing this at first hand was Squadron Leader Horace 'George' Darley, who had recently been posted to help run the Operations Room at Merville near Lille. Darley had joined the RAF from school back in 1932 and now, aged twenty-six, was an experienced pilot and officer whose career had developed with that of the Air Force. Stints of operational flying in Aden and East Africa as well as time as an instructor and ground controller made him a very rounded and highly experienced officer.
At Merville, however, Darley's task was an uphill one. Based in a small house beside the airfield, he was supposed to field calls from the ground forces and then send up fighters in response. 'But all the communications were by field telephones,' he said, 'and I had about twenty.' One of them would ring and it would take him precious time just to work out which one it was. Needless to say, more often than not, the Hurricanes were scrambled too late to have much effect.
In fact, such was the dispersion of Allied air forces and so disjointed command and control that the comparative parity in numbers became less important. The Luftwaffe could pick them off a bit at a time – bombing airfields, catching them on the ground or pouncing on them when they ventured into the air.
For the most part, the signs were encouraging for the Germans. Eben-Emael had been taken, the airborne landings around Rotterdam had been a success, key bridges had been captured, the Dutch Air Force had been all but destroyed. The RAF had seventy-five aircraft lost or damaged, the French seventy-four. Airfields had been bombed. Chaos had reigned.
Yet the Luftwaffe had suffered horrendously that opening day, with 192 bombers and fighters lost and damaged and a staggering 244 transport planes. In all, 353 German aircraft and 904 pilots and crew would never fly again. After one day of battle. These were substantial losses.
Across the Atlantic, the President of the United States had heard the news of the German attack at around 11 p.m., Eastern Standard Time, on the night of 9 May. Sitting in the presidential study in the White House in Washington DC, he called together several of his key people, including the Secretary of the Treasury, Henry Morgenthau Jr, and gave the order to freeze all Low Countries assets immediately.
The dilemma facing Roosevelt was how to make the majority of the American people see the rapidly worsening crisis in Europe as one that threatened the security of the United States as well – especially when he had been so firmly isolationist himself throughout much of the 1930s. FDR still hoped that America might keep out of the war, but clearly they had to be ready. His approach was twofold: to help the Allies, Britain and France especially, who would be, in effect, the USA's first line of defence, and to build up America's own defences, which had, during the 1920s and 1930s, dwindled to almost nothing, partly due to cost and partly because of a deliberate policy based on the belief that maintaining large armed forces during peacetime was unnecessarily provocative. As a result, much of its Navy had been mothballed, the Air Corps had been reduced to just 20,000 men, and the Army had shrunk to just 119,913 in 1932, and on 1 July 1939 had increased only to 188,565 – just 10 per cent of the German troops marching into Poland. In 1939, the US Army was the nineteenth largest in the world, smaller than that of tiny Portugal.
Small amounts of growth had been instigated. A new shipbuilding programme had been launched back in 1938, and warships had been brought back into eastern ports for the first time since the last war. A small increase in the Army had also been authorized, but only to 227,000 men. The United States in May 1940 could hardly have been less ready to go to war.
This needed to change, but FDR's problem was that most Americans simply did not believe the threat. Poll after poll revealed that around 95 per cent of all Americans believed the US should not be drawn into the war, and while an increasing number thought America should strengthen its own defences, this was not a voice loud enough to convince Congress, where the isolationist lobby still shouted the loudest. And no matter how sound his reasons, the truth remained that Roosevelt was making a major political u-turn.
Compounding matters was the upcoming presidential election in November 1940. A precedent had been set by George Washington that no president should hold office for more than two terms; FDR had served two, but he was pretty certain he was the only leading political figure who could both win the next election and lead the US in the direction it needed to go. But could he really stand for a third term? It was something being muttered about, something FDR had clearly been thinking over, but for the time being he was keeping his thoughts and plans to himself. It was, however, the elephant in the room and would have to be confronted soon.
The biggest immediate challenge was how to build up US defences quickly and efficiently and organize the economy in such a way as to get this done without challenging the basics of democracy or unduly rousing the isolationist lobby, among whose number were some powerful and very vocal names, including the celebrated aviator Charles Lindbergh and the Ambassador to Britain, Joe Kennedy. Mistrust seethed through Washington. Isolationists and interventionists traded blows, and so did New Dealers with the big businessmen; there was, it seemed, no middle ground: capitalism or social revolution, war or isolationism. Roosevelt had a very tricky line to walk, and well he knew it.
None the less, the German assault in the West unquestionably acted as a spur. Roosevelt had been careful to play his hand very lightly; now he would have to take risks and push forward his plans both for rearmament and for educating the American public. And to do this, he would need a new team of men around him.
One person who was there to help the President was Harry Hopkins, who had not, as widely expected, died the previous autumn. Rather, Hopkins had made a very slow but steady recovery. The problems had not gone away – they never would with two-thirds of his stomach gone – and he was thin, anaemic and physically weak, but his mind, it seemed, was as sharp as ever. The son of an Iowa harness-maker, Hopkins had a very different background to Roosevelt, with his privileged East Coast upbringing, yet they shared a razor-sharp sense of humour and equally razor-sharp political instincts. 'He knows instinctively when to ask, when to keep still, when to press, when to hold back; when to approach Roosevelt direct, when to go at him roundabout,' wrote one columnist about Hopkins. 'Quick, alert, shrewd, bold and carrying it off with a bright Hell's bells air, Hopkins is in all respects the inevitable Roosevelt favourite.' Both men had also fought life-threatening illness – in Roosevelt's case, it was the polio that had crippled a once tall and athletic man in his prime and confined him to a wheelchair for the rest of his life. Their mutual affection ran deep, and it was no surprise that on 10 May, the day the Germans had launched their offensive in the West, and the day of political turmoil in Britain and France, FDR should dine with his closest and most trusted friend, colleague and political advisor.
After dinner, Hopkins had started to make a move for home – back to the rented house in Georgetown – but the President instead insisted he stay. Hopkins acquiesced, and after being lent some pyjamas was given a bedroom on the second floor overlooking the South Lawn – the very room in which President Abraham Lincoln had signed the Emancipation Proclamation seventy-seven years earlier.
Hopkins not only stayed in the White House that night of 10 May, but the following night too, and the next after that as well. Roosevelt needed him close at hand, and, as ever, Hopkins was willing to do his master's bidding and embark on a new stage in his career. Throughout his political life, he had been concerned primarily with social reform. Military matters and foreign affairs had not interested him. That, however, was about to change.
Back across the Atlantic, the momentum in the battle now raging in the West was all with the Germans, despite the aircraft losses; everyone felt it: the civilians fleeing from their homes, the defenders, who seemed to be overawed by the combination of air power and the speed with which the Germans were operating, and the Germans themselves. Hans von Luck, for example, was now in the Reconnaissance Battalion of 7. Panzerdivision, commanded by the young and dynamic Generalmajor Erwin Rommel. They were part of Armeegruppe A, but in Panzerkorps Hoth, aiming to cross the Rhine further north than Guderian, at Dinant. Von Luck and his men were highly trained, believed in the new panzer tactics of speed, and were confident of success. When some of the older men had warned them it would not be a walkover like Poland, 'We younger ones replied that there could not, and must not, be any trench warfare as in 1914–18,' noted von Luck. 'Our tank force was too mobile, our attitude too positive.'
While von Luck and the rest of Panzerkorps Hoth were hurrying through the Ardennes, the Allies were lumbering into Belgium and Holland to meet the northern thrust, and in so doing had fallen for the German deception plan hook, line and sinker. By 12 May, the German 6. Armee, part of Armeegruppe B, had linked up with the airborne troops still holding Eben-Emael. The Albert Canal, a key obstacle that ran from Antwerp to Liège, had been crossed. The Dutch Army had fallen back to Rotterdam and appeared to be finished. Gerrit den Hartog and his fellows in 28th Regiment had stumbled from one confused encounter to another. On the 11th, they had headed north from Amstelwijk to the bridges at Zwijndrecht, linking the island of Dordrecht to Rotterdam, which had been taken the day before. By this time, den Hartog was exhausted, hungry and scared. Rather than wrest the bridges from the Germans, however, they had been met by unarmed Dutch soldiers warning them not to shoot. As they had approached, German troops had appeared and captured the lot, Gerrit den Hartog included.
Meanwhile, to the south, the French 7e Armée, fulfilling their role as part of the Breda Variant, had advanced only to be forced back towards Antwerp. By the 13th, German troops had reached the Dutch coast, while the Belgians were starting to fall back too, desperately trying to link up with the British and French now taking up positions along the Dyle. Not all were yet there, however. The French 1e Armée was still struggling to wade through the mass of refugees clogging the roads ever more densely. Bombing by the Luftwaffe continued; telephone lines were cut and roads blocked, and dispatch riders were heading into the morass on little more than a fool's errand. The Allied air forces, having proved themselves worthy opponents in the air, were being butchered on the ground instead.
And, all the while, the panzers in Armeegruppe A that were the main thrust were pushing through the Ardennes, forging their way past the long list of obstacles and potential time hazards so that miraculously, by 13 May, just as Guderian had predicted, they had reached the River Meuse.
CHAPTER 21
Smashing the Meuse Front
FREDDIE KNOLLER Had made it to France, but his Austrian passport ensured he was immediately arrested and handcuffed, even though it was stamped with a large 'J' for Jew. Concern over Fifth Columnists outweighed any sympathy for Jewish refugees. At the police station, he was made to show his interrogator his circumcised penis. His story was believed, but this didn't stop him and other German speakers from being marched to the train station through the streets under armed guard. 'Sales Boches!' people shouted at them. One woman emptied her pisspot over them.
Bundled on to a cattle truck along with a number of Germans who were, Knoller discovered, Fifth Columnists, he tried to ignore their taunts, wondering all the time where he was being sent. Eventually, after an interminably long two-day journey with nothing but straw and a wooden floor to sit on, his journey ended. They had reached a town called Saint-Cyprien, about six miles from Perpignan, a way to the south. This, Knoller learned, was an internment camp originally set up for refugees of the Spanish Civil War. Led off the trains and into a large assembly hall, they were then addressed by a French officer. 'All of you are enemies of France,' he told them. 'Any attempt to escape is punishable by death.'
Among the first troops reaching the Meuse were the recently promoted Hauptmann Hans von Luck and his comrades in the 7. Reconnaissance Battalion. Incredibly, they had reached the river just a few miles north of Dinant ahead of schedule on the night of 12 May. Their advance had been through difficult terrain, but they had not met much resistance. Ahead of them now, though, was a river a hundred metres wide and, beyond that, sharply rising craggy cliffs. The first crossing was made over a footbridge by a weir and lock system that was, astonishingly, not only unguarded, but also lay on the boundary between two French corps. It was a sloppy oversight, especially since it was the precise spot where Germans had crossed in 1914, but, even so, one footbridge was not going to be enough to get an entire German division across.
The main assault began the following morning around first light. Generalmajor Rommel arrived in his scout car and told von Luck and his men to stay put. Crossing the river, he said, was a job for the infantry. Paddling over in boats, they soon came under heavy fire, but eventually, through counter-fire and by setting houses ablaze to create smokescreens, they made it, with Rommel himself crossing that afternoon. The French had been badly caught out. Dinant was in Belgium and although the French 9e Armée had begun moving forward to the Meuse once the offensive began, Général André Corap, the Army commander, had not expected the Germans to reach the river there – if at all – in less than ten days and more likely two weeks. Some French troops had arrived but had not dug in. Even so, their commanding position should have enabled them to hold off such a wide river crossing and buy them time to bring up reinforcements. Key to stopping the Germans in their tracks was to defend these nodal points such as rivers, bridges and crossroads. They had failed at this first test.
It could still have been so different. Panzerkorps Hoth was separate from the rest of Panzergruppe Kleist, the main panzer formation in Armeegruppe A, and operating further north. Panzergruppe Kleist was made up of three panzer corps – those of Guderian, General Reinhardt and also General von Wietersheim. Guderian's three divisions had benefited from being the spearhead, but Panzerkorps Reinhardt, heading towards the Meuse further north of Sedan at Monthermé, soon ran into the world's biggest traffic jam as infantry units, supposed to be following behind, cut in across them. General Reinhardt's divisions became increasingly separated and split up – his leading division, for example, was shredded as no fewer than four infantry divisions tried to cut across its advance. By the morning of 13 May, there were queues some 170 miles long.
This meant the vast bulk of Armeegruppe A was a sitting duck for any Allied aerial attack. On the night of 10 May and again the following morning, Allied reconnaissance aircraft had spotted German columns going through the Ardennes, but the reports were not taken seriously. On the night of 11–12 May, another recce pilot reported seeing long columns of Germans, but, again, it was ignored. On the afternoon of the 12th, yet another reconnaissance pilot reported the same, but although his claims were passed on to the intelligence section of the French 9e Armée, they were dismissed as absurd. Had they been taken seriously, and had a mass of Allied bombers been sent over, much of Armeegruppe A would have been stopped in its tracks and, with it, the key component in the German plan of attack.
But the opportunity had been missed: another big black mark against Corap and his staff and the French High Command.
The Germans had not anticipated these traffic jams, as strict traffic orders had been put in place, and it was only because the infantry divisions, separate from Panzergruppe Kleist and not so well trained, had not stuck to the plan that these difficulties had arisen. That the spearhead would get to the Meuse in three days if all went according to plan was always going to be a tall order, but that General Reinhardt's men reached Monthermé as well as Guderian's troops reaching the Meuse was an absolutely extraordinary achievement, and was due to a masterpiece example of the German Bewegungskrieg.
The men of Panzergruppe Kleist unquestionably conformed to the German stereotype of myth: they were well trained, motivated, decently equipped and confident, and knew exactly what they had to do. Yet speed had been the name of the game in reaching the Meuse. Fighting quality would not add up to a hill of beans if the three panzer corps of Guderian, von Hoth and Reinhardt did not get there in three days and cross it in four, because if they took much longer the French reserves would beat them to it and reinforce this weak spot in the French front line.
With time at a premium, the logistics of the operation needed to be flawless. Luckily for them, the Panzergruppe's Chief of Staff was the particularly able Oberst Kurt Zeitzler.
'If ever the success of an operation depended on supplies,' noted Zeitzler, 'that is the case with our operation.' With this in mind, he set about resolving one logistical headache after another. Logistics normally came under the logistics unit of the parent army command, but Zeitzler decided that because the Panzergruppe was to be operationally independent then it should be logistically independent too. Zeitzler called this the 'Rucksack Prinzip' – the 'Rucksack Principle'. 'To use an analogy relating to railway operations,' he wrote, 'you might say, the unit must no longer hand its supplies over to the next higher duty station for transportation. Instead, it must have its supplies with the train itself as a backpack or hand baggage.'
There were 41,400 vehicles in Panzergruppe Kleist, a very large number to cater for, and Zeitzler ensured that every single one was loaded to the maximum capacity with ammunition, rations and, most importantly, fuel. Very well-stocked fuel depots were set up from where the panzer groups formed up within Germany all the way to the Luxembourg border. Zeitzler insisted that every single vehicle – tank, truck or motorcycle – should be loaded full with fuel not only as it passed the Luxembourg border, but the Belgian border too. This was resolved by placing numerous fuel-carrying trucks into the spearhead. At key points, jerrycans were handed over to the crews as the vehicles drove past, and the vehicles were refuelled at the next rest or enforced stop. The empty jerrycans were left on the side of the road at designated points and then picked up and refilled at the next dump.
Another potential headache was the problem of repairs to this vast army of vehicles. All the more than 41,000 had to reach the Channel over 400 miles away, so they carried plenty of mechanics and spare parts, and there were planned air-drops of further supplies.
Leading the advance to the Meuse was 1. Panzerdivision, part of Guderian's panzer corps. The Divisional Chief of Staff was Hauptmann Johann Graf von Kielmansegg, who knew what they were up against. 'Every minute counts,' Guderian repeatedly told his men, and that meant relentlessly pushing forward all day and all night. Von Kielmansegg took this to heart, organizing relief panzer crews to be transported in trucks so that the advance never need stop. Guderian had warned his men they would be unlikely to get any sleep for three nights, and so it proved for a large number of them. Once again, von Kielmansegg had thought ahead, packing some 20,000 tablets of an amphetamine called Pervitin to be handed out to anyone consumed by fatigue.
The slick execution of this operational plan, combined with a big dose of good fortune, had ensured that both Reinhardt and Guderian were ready to cross the Meuse on the 13th, not the 14th – that is, a day earlier than anticipated. A curious feature of the German attack was the repeated insubordination of senior commanders towards their superiors. Guderian, for one, was operating almost entirely in a bubble in which he was deaf to the wishes of von Kleist, for whom he had little time or respect. So he agreed to attack across the Meuse at 4 p.m. on 13 May but ignored von Kleist's order to make the assault further north of Sedan.
To a certain extent, Guderian's refusal to be tied to the orders of his superiors was nothing new. Rather like the plan itself, he was adhering to principles of command that had developed as a by-product of Bewegungskrieg. Because of the fast-moving nature of this form of warfare, a flexible system of command was essential, which meant lower-ranking commanders tended to be given a fair amount of leeway to use their initiative. Orders would focus on the objective, while those in the thick of it were left to their own devices as to how that objective could be best achieved. It was known as the 'independence of the lower commander', or, in German, Selbständigkeit der Unterführer. In more recent times, this has come to be called Auftragstaktik, or mission command, although this was not a term Germans would have been familiar with in 1940.
This independence of the lower commander applied to all ranks, from a lowly Gruppe, or section, commander, right up to a corps commander like Guderian. Certainly, Guderian felt he was in a far better position than von Kleist to decide both crossing points and the way in which his attack should be directed. He also knew the town well, for he had attended the German Staff College, which had been based there back in 1918; it was why he had opted for Sedan in the first place and why he was determined to use his local knowledge for what he considered the best crossing places. Guderian had also, quite independently, organized direct air support from the Luftwaffe, as not all his artillery had arrived. Calling an old friend, Generalleutnant Bruno Loerzer, commander of Fliegerkorps VIII, he had asked for a rolling barrage of wave after wave of Stukas and other bombers. The aim was to stun the French by near-constant attacks. To his horror, however, he then learned that von Kleist had ordered a different one-off massed attack from Loerzer's superior, General Hugo Sperrle, commander of Luftflotte 3. 'My whole attack,' noted Guderian, 'was thus placed in jeopardy.'
Guderian had clambered up a chalky hill a few miles to the south of Sedan from where he could see the attacks unfold. The Meuse was to be crossed in three places, one at precisely the same point as where German troops had attacked in 1870. It was with great anxiety that he peered through his binoculars waiting for the arrival of the Luftwaffe and for the attacks to start. Much to his enormous relief, however, when the first Stukas arrived, including those of Helmut Mahlke's 2.St/186, it was to attack in exactly the way he had discussed with Loerzer rather than had been dictated to him by von Kleist. He later discovered that Loerzer had similarly ignored instructions from Sperrle.
Hurrying back down the hill, he headed for his command car and then the central crossing point at the suburb of Gaulier. Like Rommel, Guderian was very much a commander who led from the front and liked to be both in the thick of it and seen by his men.
In the air, it appeared the Luftwaffe was still very much in control. The ability to choose when to attack and in what numbers was proving an enormous advantage.
Among those witnessing this superiority at first hand was Squadron Leader Sydney Bufton, a career RAF pilot with a stack of experience after having been stationed in various corners of the world from Iraq to North Africa. He had recently completed the RAF's Staff College course, and had then been posted to the Headquarters Staff of the Advanced Air Striking Force in France. However, within a few days of the German assault, months of careful co-ordination with both the French Army and the Armée de l'Air had been rapidly undone. At dawn on 14 May, for example, having been on duty all night at AASF's HQ at Chauny, he had witnessed a mass of German bombers fly over and hit the large French military camp nearby. In response to this there was neither anti-aircraft fire nor any fighters of their own. The following night, he attempted to go to bed to the sound of an ammunition dump at Laon exploding. Then at 11.30 p.m., they were suddenly ordered to move. 'All the work of the past nine months was undone,' he wrote in his diary. The air effort had become completely dislocated – severed at the head.
This was why those sent to bomb Sedan on 13 May had been able to do so without interference. Escorting the bombers were fighter pilots of 2/JG2, including 23-year-old Siegfried Bethke. The escort to Sedan had been his third sortie of the day, but they had still barely seen an enemy plane. 'We're almost disappointed,' he scribbled in his journal. Circling around and watching Stukas dive-bombing was not how he had imagined it would be.
One person who might have gladly swapped places was Billy Drake, who, along with the rest of 1 Squadron RAF, had had more than enough action. He now had four and a half confirmed kills – five would qualify him as an 'ace' – and was on yet another sortie when he began suffering oxygen supply problems and so told the others he was returning to base. Losing height to avoid the need for oxygen, he spotted a flight of Dorniers, flew up behind them and shot one out of the sky. He was watching it spiral down in flames when suddenly there was a loud crack and a brief moment later flames were engulfing his Hurricane. Desperately glancing around, he realized he had an Me110 Zerstörer on his tail and still firing.
Panicking, he frantically undid his radio leads and unclipped his harness but then couldn't remember how to open the canopy. Covered in petrol and glycol, he knew he had to get out and fast, and as he tugged on the canopy the Hurricane flipped over of its own accord so that the flames were suddenly drawn away from him. Finally, the canopy opened, and he dropped out. 'Still the 110 was shooting at me,' he noted, 'and then he was past and gone.' He pulled the ripcord on his parachute, it billowed open and he floated gently to earth. He was very, very lucky to be alive. The fuel tanks in the Hurricanes were in the wing roots and once the machine guns had been fired, air whistled through the gun ports. If the fuel tanks were hit, this would fan the flames straight into the cockpit. Pilots had a matter of seconds to escape. Drake had also been wounded in the leg and back. Only a short while before, 1 Squadron pilots had added armour plating behind the cockpit – at the insistence of the CO, 'Bull' Halahan. Unbeknown to Drake at the time, a bullet had hit the armour plating at head level. Without it, he would have been dead.
As it happened, he landed on friendly ground and, despite being fair and slightly Germanic in appearance, was able to persuade the French farmers who arrived on the scene that he was English. Taken to hospital in Chartres and later back to England, he was, for the time being at any rate, one less RAF pilot for the Germans to worry about.
As dusk fell on 13 May, at Dinant, at Monthermé and at Sedan, German troops had not only successfully crossed the mighty Meuse but had made firm bridgeheads. At Sedan, all three crossings had linked up, but it was the action of Oberstleutnant Hermann Balck and his exhausted men of 1. Rifle Regiment that sealed the day. Their objective for the day had been Hill 301, a dominant position overlooking the entire town on which much of the French artillery was dug in. Balck had fought in the last war and remembered a time when they had failed to exploit a hard-won encounter at Mount Kemmel to their cost. 'What was easy today,' he urged his men, 'could cost a lot of blood tomorrow.' It was an inspired piece of leadership, as his men, exhausted but sensing victory, stormed the hill. By 10.30 p.m., it was in German hands. Below, Sedan was burning and, behind, the French troops were fleeing, panicked into believing the panzers were already across and running amok; in fact, the crossings had been achieved by the German infantry alone.
But the panzers would be there by the following morning. Overnight, ferries would carry over more men and materiel, bridges would be built, and then the panzers and trucks and armoured cars and artillery of those ten mechanized divisions of Armeegruppe A would stream across and in behind France's defences.
Very early the following morning, 14 May, at General Headquarters at the Château Montry, Capitaine André Beaufre had only just got to sleep when he was awoken by a telephone call from Général Georges.
'Ask Général Doumenc to come here at once,' Georges told him.
An hour later, at around 3 a.m., they arrived at Georges's HQ at Château Bondons, which was more like a large villa set on a hill. All was dark except the large drawing room, which was dimly lit but had been turned into a map room, with trestle tables around the edge at which staff officers were typing and fielding calls. The atmosphere, thought Beaufre, was that of a family in which there had been a death.
Immediately, Georges stood up and came over to Doumenc. 'Our front has been broken at Sedan! There has been a collapse…' He then flung himself into a chair and burst into tears. 'He was the first man I had seen weep in this campaign,' noted Beaufre. 'It made a terrible impression on me.'
Doumenc tried to reassure him, but Georges explained that the two divisions at Sedan were now fleeing. He then collapsed into more tears. The room was otherwise silent – all were shattered not only by the stunning news but by the sight of their commander in pieces. Doumenc tried to bring some calm. The gap, he said, had to be stopped. There were three armoured divisions, all of which could be redirected towards the Meuse. These three divisions, amounting to some 600 modern and powerful tanks, could be concentrated and drive the Germans back across the river. There was much in what he said. The German benefit of surprise had now gone, they would be exhausted, and they would have to rapidly enlarge their bridgeheads with men and weapons to ensure they hung on to them. The race wasn't over – in fact, a new one had just begun, and the French, now fully alerted, had a very good opportunity to win this time around. Georges agreed to all Doumenc's suggestions. Beaufre relit all the lamps, ordered coffee all round, and then they headed back. Even so, Beaufre couldn't help fearing the worst. 'All our doctrine was founded on faith in the value of defence,' he noted, 'and now, at the first blow, our position organized over nine months broke into little pieces. This revelation struck chill.'
Throughout that day, Beaufre's worst fears began to be realized. The counter-attack by 3rd Armoured Division, the unit closest to Sedan, was postponed – orders had been slow to reach them, as had the further orders within the division and its various units. They had simply not been ready. And all the while news kept arriving of further gains for the Germans. There had been other French armoured units in the Sedan area, but although they had had less distance to travel than the German panzers and were on the right side of the river, and even though the first panzers did not cross the Meuse at Sedan until 7.45 a.m. on the 14th, it was the Germans who were lying in wait for the French, not the other way round. The French Army had an operational speed that was slow and methodical. Nothing, not even the threat of complete collapse, it seemed, could alter that.
On the same day the Meuse was crossed, President Roosevelt had met Henry Morgenthau Jr, the Secretary of the Treasury, and General George C. Marshall, the Chief of Staff of the US Army, for a meeting at the White House. Marshall was fifty-nine, with the best part of forty years' military service under his belt. He had served in the American–Philippine War, and in the Great War, had been posted to France, first as a trainer and then later on had joined the planning staff of General Pershing, the Commander-in-Chief of US forces in France, where he made quite a name for himself during the important Meuse-Argonne offensive during the last months of the war.
Remaining in the US Army, Marshall had served in China, taught at the War College and had later been assigned to the War Plans Division in Washington. By the summer of 1939, he had risen to Deputy Chief of Staff and was then promoted to the top job, being sworn in on the very day Germany invaded Poland. Intelligent, calm and soft-spoken, Marshall possessed both an inner steel and a clear, logical mind. As an administrator he had already proved himself to be exceptional, but, like Roosevelt, he was keenly aware how poor America's defences were. For several months he had been trying to persuade key figures in Congress and the Government of the need to increase defence spending. He had also put his case to Henry Morgenthau, but for men like the Secretary of the Treasury, who had been almost solely concerned with domestic issues, the world of dramatic rearmament was something new and involved dizzyingly high sums of money at a time when America had very little to spare. He was, however, supportive of Marshall, but knew the only option was to take the matter to the President. That the Germans had launched their attack a few days earlier was very much to Marshall's advantage.
Also attending were the isolationist Secretary of War, Harry Woodring, and the ineffective Secretary of the Navy, Charles Edison. The debate quickly became heated, and neither Morgenthau nor Marshall was getting through, until eventually Morgenthau asked FDR to listen to the Chief of Staff.
'I know exactly what he would say,' Roosevelt replied. 'There is no necessity for me to hear him at all.'
At this, Marshall got up, strode over to Roosevelt's chair and said with quiet authority, 'Mr President,' he said, 'can I have three minutes?'
Apparently disarmed, Roosevelt agreed, and Marshall then presented the President with some blunt truths. It was time, Marshall pointed out, for the President to make some tough decisions. The Army was in a woeful state. It really is hard not to overplay just how moribund the US armed forces were in May 1940. The Army's equipment was out of date, in terms of troop numbers it was tiny, and it was in no position whatsoever to confront the Germans. There were just a few hundred tanks, and no anti-tank guns whatsoever, and there was a shortage of mortars, machine guns and other essential weaponry. The Army Air Corps had just 160 fighters – or pursuit planes, as the Americans called them – and fifty-two heavy bombers. These were as good as nothing. The Navy was also in a bad way, with an antiquated structure and no central means of procurement. Roosevelt had increased naval shipbuilding since 1936, but it was not enough. If Japan decided to go to war against them too – and Japan's imperial ambitions were becoming all too evident – then the US would be powerless to stop it. Fighting a war on a two-ocean front was unthinkable.
What Marshall urged Roosevelt to do was not only demand far greater spending on rearmament, but also to gather together a group of industrialists to help advise the government on how to achieve massive rearming as quickly as possible. Because, Marshall made clear, getting the cash was only half of it. Even more challenging was going to be mobilizing American industry for war. The US Army had only six working arsenals manufacturing weapons, and much of the machinery was both old and obsolete. The time for paying lip service to the isolationists was over; the US needed to act, and act fast. 'If you don't do something,' Marshall told him, 'and do it right away, I don't know what's going to happen to the country.'
Further warnings of doom had come from the new British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill. At the outbreak of war, Roosevelt had written to Churchill asking to keep informally in touch with him personally. The two had met – albeit only once before – back in July 1918, when Roosevelt, as Assistant Secretary to the Navy, had been in London on a fact-finding mission and had attended a dinner for the War Cabinet; Churchill had not impressed Roosevelt, while the Prime Minister had forgotten the encounter altogether. In other words, the two knew about each other, but that was all. On 15 May, the day after Marshall's entreaty, Churchill wrote his sixth letter to the President. 'The small countries,' he wrote, 'are simply smashed up, one by one, like matchwood.' He painted a darker picture than Churchill believed to be really the case, and warned of an imminent invasion of Britain. 'But I trust you realize, Mr President, that the voice and force of the United States may count for nothing if they are withheld too long.' He asked for more direct support in terms of arms and war materiel, and particularly the loan of forty or fifty old destroyers to bridge the gap while British shipyards made up the shortfall. He also pointed out the need to purchase steel from the US now that Britain's traditional markets in North Africa and Sweden were threatened. Roosevelt, who accepted that US security was directly linked to Britain's survival, responded the next day with as much encouragement as he dared.
And on that same day, 16 May, and bucked further by polls suggesting the public was warming to the idea that the US needed to adequately rearm, the President addressed Congress and asked not for the $24 million increase to the Army budget that had been originally put forward, but a staggering $1.2 billion, and to increase both the Army's and the Navy's air forces to some 50,000 aeroplanes. US aircraft manufacturers had produced just 2,100 military aircraft in 1939. 'These are ominous days,' he told a joint session of Congress. 'The American people must recast their thinking about national protection.' The generally isolationist Congress, shocked by what was happening in Europe, not only applauded the speech, but approved the President's request. It was a start – a step closer towards all-out rearmament.
Meanwhile, in France, the Germans had been enlarging their bridgehead west of the River Meuse. Guderian had once again ignored orders from von Kleist to wait to build up forces before advancing, although on this occasion it had been 1. Panzerdivision's Chief of Staff, Major Wenck, who helped make up his mind by reminding him of one of his favourite sayings: 'Boot them, don't slap them!' 'That really answered my question,' he admitted. Ordering 10. Panzerdivision to protect the bridgehead, he ordered 1. and 2. Panzer to head west – towards the Channel coast.
At any rate, there was no French counter-attack of any note along the Sedan front on 14 May, allowing the Germans the breathing space to get more forces across the river without much hindrance. An Allied bomber attack on Sedan was massacred, while, at Dinant, Panzerkorps Hoth continued to press forward. Hans von Luck was amazed to keep seeing Rommel among them and in the thick of the fighting, but his divisional commander had told them repeatedly, 'Keep going, don't look to left or right, only forward. I'll cover your flanks if necessary. The enemy is confused; we must take advantage of it.'
Even so, they would not have had such an easy time of it had the French 1st Armoured Division, on standby near Charleroi, got moving sooner. Again, the French were proving they simply could not operate with speed. In fact, the division was not even ordered forward until 2 p.m. on the 14th and then found itself battling against roads crammed with fleeing civilians. It managed twenty miles then leaguered for the night. Unbeknown to them, Rommel's lead panzers were also corralled for the night just a few miles away. By morning, the Luftwaffe had attacked and destroyed several French fuel convoys, and the French tanks were laboriously refuelling one tank after the other. The German refuelling method was completely different. Rather than using fuel bowsers, trucks would motor from tank to tank, with men dishing out large numbers of jerrycans so that the panzers could be refuelled at the same time. At any rate, the lead tanks of the French 1st Armoured were caught out while still refuelling. After knocking out a number, Rommel ordered his lead units to push on, leaving 5. Panzerdivision to take on the French.
The French 1st Armoured had better tanks with better guns, but they were still destroyed that day. At dawn they had had 170 tanks; by evening just thirty-six. The following morning, that figure had dwindled to just sixteen. What had done for them was not the German panzers but the panzers' radios and German anti-tank guns. Some French tanks – but not all – had radios, but most of them had broken down because they were equipped with weak batteries. In contrast, all panzers had modern radio equipment and were able to communicate with each other and their anti-tank artillery units. In a nutshell, the panzers acted either in packs, beetling about and hammering their flanks all at once, or as bait, luring the French heavy tanks into a waiting anti-tank screen.
That same day, Panzerkorps Reinhardt also broke out of its bridgehead at Monthermé and charged thirty miles west, an astonishing achievement considering only 6. Panzerdivision had actually made it across the Meuse – the rest of the corps were still languishing in the traffic mayhem of the Ardennes. The next morning, 16 May, 6th Panzer met up with Guderian and 1st Panzer at Montcornet, some fifty miles west of Sedan. The audacious plan could not have gone better. The entire Meuse Front had completely collapsed, and the stunning German victory had been achieved by just six panzer divisions – three at Sedan, one at Monthermé and two at Dinant.
Now they had to complete the encirclement.
CHAPTER 22
Encirclement
'THE SUDDEN REVELATION of modern warfare,' wrote the French Prime Minister, Paul Reynaud, 'was a frightful surprise.' Yet much of the German equipment was no more modern and a lot of it much less so than the French. What was different – and modern – was Guderian's use of operational speed and of mechanized and infantry divisions op-erating independently. Even more ironic was the fact that most within the Wehrmacht expressed great scepticism about this 'modern' approach; it was only Guderian, and the corps and divisional commanders within the panzer arm, who had remotely bought into such ideas. Furthermore, until the attack in the West, it had not really been tested before. The US and now British press had caught on to the term Blitzkrieg – German for 'lightning war' – but the doctrine established within the Wehrmacht, and the methods used by Guderian et al. in the race to the Meuse and which were being unleashed now as they continued their dash west, were new to this campaign and had not been adopted in Poland or in Norway. The 'revelation' was that a war of manoeuvre could be fought at speeds the French had not anticipated.
The other shock was the effect of concentrated air power. The Luftwaffe was losing large numbers of aircraft – 353 on 10 May, 68 on the 11th, 54 on the 12th, 35 on the 13th and 59 on the 14th – so it wasn't as though it was having it all its own way. Helmut Mahlke's Stuka Gruppe lost eight machines and crews on the 14th, for example, including two from his own Staffel. 'This 14 May,' he noted, 'had been a black day indeed for our Gruppe.' In the air, the Allies were more than a match; Billy Drake was not the only pilot becoming an ace. The difference was the Luftwaffe's ability to attack at a time and in numbers of its own choosing; it was the Schwerpunkt principle applied to air warfare. More Allied aircraft were lost on the ground than in the air, which was why after a few days' fighting the Luftwaffe had lost many more pilots and aircrew than the Allies. The lack of any effective Allied early-warning system was proving a terrible oversight.
The Dutch Air Force had been almost entirely destroyed on the first day, and on the 14th Rotterdam was bombed with devastating results. In fact, it had been a mistake. The Luftwaffe had been asked to support the German 18. Armee's attack to help break Dutch resistance. The Germans had also threatened to bomb the city and, on hearing this, Dutch authorities had begun negotiating their surrender. Just after midday, the orders for KG54 to bomb Rotterdam were cancelled, but it was too late to tell the bomber crews. Red flares were fired, but fifty-seven Heinkel 111s never saw them and dropped their loads. In the catastrophe that followed, 2.8 miles of the historic heart of the city was destroyed and some 850 people were killed.
The attack had been watched by Gerrit den Hartog's wife, Cor, from their home in Leidschendam, on the edge of The Hague. Huge clouds of smoke rose above the ruined city, where she had a number of relatives living and working. Chaos ensued as survivors tried to flee the carnage. The bombing of Rotterdam rather put the earlier bombing of Guernica in Spain and then Warsaw into the shade. The frightfulness of war, and the Armageddon brought by massed bomber formations, forecast repeatedly through the 1930s, suddenly appeared to be a reality. However unintentional, there is no doubt that it did much to add to the view that the German military machine was unstoppable – a view that was gathering considerable momentum as marauding panzers were reported impossibly far distances west and Stukas and 109s continued to bomb and strafe columns of fleeing refugees.
Paul Reynaud could scarcely believe the scale of the disaster that was unfolding as a result of the collapse of the Sedan front. He had been urging the armed forces to show some vim and verve, had done all he could to get some consensus on the protraction of the French war effort, had time and again warned of complacency and a defensive mindset, and yet it had been repeatedly thrown back in his face. Now his worst fears were being realized. Everything had been staked upon the continuous front – if it was broken, there was no Plan B. As it stood, the best of the French forces had moved up into Belgium and Holland and were confronting the German Armeegruppe B there along the Dyle. But to the south, German forces were now pouring through a major hole in the line. He could see exactly what was likely to happen if something wasn't done very quickly: the bulk of the French, British and Belgian forces would become encircled, with no means of being resupplied. Millions of men would be caught in a massive trap. That had been the German plan all along, and they had fallen for it: completely, utterly, totally.
The only way of stopping it, he believed, was by the use of aircraft stemming the advance of the panzers and combating the power of the Stukas. At 5.45 p.m. on the 14th, he called Churchill and asked for urgent reinforcements of RAF fighter planes. Churchill replied that they would give the matter full consideration. The next morning, at 7.30 a.m., Reynaud telephoned him again for his response. When Churchill expressed surprise at the severity of the picture the French Prime Minister was painting, Reynaud said, 'We are beaten. We have lost the battle.'
One of those seemingly flying at will was Leutnant Siegfried Bethke, a fighter pilot with I/JG2 'Richthofen'. Born in Stralsund, on the northern Baltic coast, he had joined the fledgling Luftwaffe from school and by May 1940 had well over 300 hours' solo flying under his belt. Most pilots, whether French, British or German, tended to have around 150 hours by the time they were fully trained and joining their operational units, which meant that pre-war Regulars tended to have a huge advantage; they no longer had to think about flying, as that had become second nature. Rather, they could concentrate on combat flying, which was an altogether different matter. Even so, while Bethke knew how to throw his Messerschmitt around the sky, he was keenly aware that he had almost no gunnery training whatsoever. Consequently, he was unsure how he would be once in combat.
Bethke had been posted to Bassenheim near Koblenz ready for the offensive towards the end of April and had arrived with mixed feelings. On the one hand, he had been longing to get into action ever since he had first joined the Luftwaffe, but on the other he was apprehensive too, as well he might be. Three days into the offensive, however, and Bethke was beginning to feel a bit frustrated; flying over Sedan on 13 May had been so far the closest to action he had been. As they were supporting Armeegruppe A, they had been operating further south; the main thrust of the air effort had been in the north in support of Armeegruppe B.
Still, he had no real cause for any complaints. On 15 May, they moved to a new airfield in Belgium, and the following morning while waiting for orders he sat in a deckchair jotting in his leather-bound journal, a gift from his girlfriend. 'My dear Siegfried!' she had written at the front, 'In these momentous times, one must keep a diary. What will you put in it? Stuttgart, September 1939, Your Hedi.'
'On a green field on edge of forest, sunny weather,' he scribbled. 'Next to me a tent for tools and equipment. Around me, the squadron troops, the vehicles, the clothes… A small stray dog is sitting beside me. We milked "our" free-roaming cows yesterday. They don't seem bothered by the hectic bustle of the planes and the noise of the engines.' They had milk, wine, chickens, even a slaughtered ox. It would not be so comfortable for long.
In London, Jock Colville had been watching the extraordinary events of the past week unfold. The Government had fallen, Chamberlain was no longer PM and in his place was Winston Churchill, a man about whom Colville had severe reservations. A new coalition government had been formed and with it a new War Cabinet of five, as well as the wider cabinet of ministerial positions. Churchill had wasted no time in asking Chamberlain to be one of the five, which he had accepted; the two had not always got along, but Chamberlain had been deeply touched by Churchill's graciousness towards him; the new PM had even suggested that Chamberlain remain at No. 10 for the time being. The gesture was both part of Churchill's natural character and politically savvy: Chamberlain was still Conservative leader and continued to command much support from within the party; Churchill needed his backing. Halifax remained as Foreign Secretary, while the two other places were taken by Clement Attlee and Arthur Greenwood. Major-General Hastings 'Pug' Ismay became Churchill's Chief of Staff and Deputy Secretary (Military) to the War Cabinet. And Jock Colville remained as one of the Prime Minister's secretaries, flitting between No. 10 and Admiralty House where Churchill continued to work.
As if the political upheavals were not enough, there was the disaster that was evolving across France and the Low Countries. Those in London, perhaps understandably, were not quick to see catastrophe unfolding as they were in France. Certainly, no one was breaking down and blubbing. 'Apparently,' noted Colville on the 16th, 'the French are still not putting their best leg forward.'
The same day, and still in her family home in Leidschendam, Cor den Hartog listened to the radio her husband had insisted on buying several years earlier, trying to pick up every scrap of news. German announcements told the Dutch that their troops would be entering the cities en masse and that all civilian traffic would be halted between 5.45 a.m. and 12.30 p.m. German 'credit certificates' were now to be accepted as cash, and beer was to be reserved for German troops. Blackouts would be strictly maintained. An air of menace and fear had descended; even on the first day, thousands upon thousands of leaflets had been dropped telling the Dutch to lay down arms and warning that anyone caught in acts of sabotage would be executed.
Worried sick about the fate of her husband, she now decided to go and look for him, even though she was pregnant with their fourth child; she was a devout Calvinist, but even prayer had been unable to give her any kind of solace. Placing her children in the care of Gerrit's parents, she took out her bicycle and prepared to start her search. Someone had said that POWs would be returned to their original posts and, knowing that her husband had been based at Strijen, she headed there first – although how she would find him and what she would then do once she did she had no idea. Gerrit's parents tried to talk her out of it – how could she know where he was? And what if the roads were destroyed? 'Then I will find other roads,' she replied.
She headed off, reminding herself that everything was part of God's plan, but, even so, the scenes of devastation were shocking: buildings reduced to rubble, wrecked aircraft, blown-down trees, dead livestock and abandoned guns. At a roadblock, Germans stopped her as a column trundled by and then she pedalled on only to discover other women also out cycling and hunting for missing sons and husbands. When she reached the place where Gerrit had been billeted, however, there was no sign of him.
Also on the 16th, Churchill flew to Paris for meetings with Reynaud and Gamelin. It was a beautiful day in Paris, and from the large meeting room in the Quai D'Orsay they could see the palace gardens, where bonfires had been lit – state papers were being burned. It hardly inspired confidence, although Churchill did his best to stiffen French resolve. The minutes of that meeting survive and make for interesting reading, not least because of the huge discrepancy between what Churchill and his British delegation thought was, could be and should be happening and the appalling, yet calm, defeatism of Gamelin and Daladier. Repeatedly, Churchill pointed out that the dash of a handful of panzers should not be of too much concern as they would be unable to support themselves or refuel. Gamelin accepted that, so long as counter-attacks could be successfully made the following day against the mass of enemy forces now pouring through the breech in the line, but warned that the French armoured divisions had already suffered heavy losses. He did not mention why counter-attacks had not already been ordered.
'Where is the strategic reserve?' Churchill asked.
'There is none,' Gamelin replied.
Churchill was dumbstruck. Over and over, the French asked for more aircraft – only then, perhaps, could the battle be turned. Churchill promised to ask the Cabinet and duly did so. In his mind, he was convinced of the need to send ten fighter squadrons. The question was whether in doing so they were backing a busted flush and were risking weakening their own defences.
Since the start of the German attack, the American journalist Eric Sevareid had been beetling about, heading to Général Corap's HQ, then to the Belgian border, but getting little news of what was actually going on. At one point he had to dive for a ditch as a British fighter plane, followed by two Germans, in the middle of a dogfight, thundered over at treetop height. He watched one German plane come down as well as the Hurricane, the British pilot manoeuvring the falling aircraft away from the nearby village. Sevareid hurried to the wreckage. In the field, the cows were grazing peacefully, but there was a big, dark crater, which contained smoking parts of the plane and a single flying boot. Two Frenchmen with sacks were moving around picking up bits of red meat which they buried as villagers stood watching and weeping. 'We found the plane's serial number,' noted Sevareid, 'and returned to the press headquarters in Cambrai, a little sick, very sobered, wondering what was happening to France.'
He wasn't the only one. For many of those caught up in the fighting, these were confusing, dizzying days. By 17 May, Jean Offenberg was one of just six pilots in his entire fighter group that still had an aircraft. After the first day, their experience had been of one retreat after another, as they pulled back further and further until finally they were ordered to Chartres, then Tours, headquarters of one of the Armée de l'Air's Zone of Operations. Offenberg took off with his fellow pilots unsure where Tours was or how they were going to get there. Eventually, having spotted the River Loire, they found it and landed. 'Unfortunately they did not know what to do with us there,' noted Offenberg. 'The French were not expecting us…' At least, though, they had survived the first week of fighting. Much of their country, however, now lay in German hands.
René de Chambrun had eventually caught up with 50th Division, part of General Alan Brooke's II Corps. The division was in reserve and preparing new defences south-west of Brussels along the River Dendre. In his role as liaison officer, he had spent much of his time interrogating downed Luftwaffe crews and suspected Fifth Columnists – supposed enemy agents spreading panic and mayhem behind the lines, even though most of that was taking place without any need for agents. Mostly, however, what he saw was a never-ending stream of refugees, including a lawyer from Louvain who had come to see him in Paris before the war. The man had been carrying a baby and a small valise. Chambrun had given him what money he could spare and had wished him luck. 'These sights on the Belgian roads,' he confessed, 'made my heart ache and I must confess that an intense feeling of discouragement began to undermine my morale.'
It was hard not to feel discouraged if you were in the Allied armies. On the 16th, orders had been given for the northern front to fall back from the Dyle to the Escaut, some forty miles further to the west, which ran roughly due south from Ghent to Cambrai in France. Many had marched to the Dyle, seen no action whatsoever, or very little, and then been told to retreat back through roads clogged with refugees. The British part of the line fell into that camp, but the problems facing the Allied command were twofold: in the north, the German Armeegruppe B had pushed ahead. Holland had fallen and the German 18. Armee was pressing south around the top of the Dyle Line. To the south of the British line, French forces had also been pushed back. In order to keep the line intact, therefore, they all had to retreat together.
The second and more threatening development was that of the southern German thrust. Only at Stonne, a village to the south of Sedan, had the French showed much mettle. Here, the village changed hands no fewer than seventeen times between 15 and 17 May. Elsewhere, the three German panzer spearheads had continued to cut a swathe towards the coast. The chance to sever the head of this particular beast had not been taken. French units had counter-attacked but there had been no concentrated effort; it simply had not materialized. What French attacks there were had been contained and blunted. Other units, so startled to see German armoured columns thundering into town, had simply put their hands in the air. Such an eventuality had not been part of the script they had trained for. With no idea what else to do, surrender had seemed the only option. As a consequence, infantry units and even the first two Waffen-SS divisions, ill-trained but brilliantly equipped and mechanized, were able to follow on behind, mopping up and creating a wedge through the heart of France. For men like Hans von Luck, steaming across France, these were thrilling days. By 18 May, they were rolling into Cambrai. 'With our reconnaissance battalion we covered the tank advance on the left flank,' he noted, 'and were thereby involved again and again with the flood of retreating French soldiers, who in their panic mingled to a large extent with the civilian population.' Two days later, they crossed the all-important Saint-Quentin Canal, and news arrived that, on their southern flank, Guderian's men had reached Abbeville on the River Somme and were just fifteen miles from the Channel coast. They had advanced more than 250 miles in just ten days. Not in their wildest dreams had they imagined such an achievement.
It was on the following day, 21 May, that the great Allied counter-attack was due to take place. It had been instigated by the British, and General 'Tiny' Ironside, the CIGS, in particular, who had been visiting the front, both to see what was going on and to put some vigour into the Allied response. He had conceived it as a major and combined Anglo-French thrust from north and south that would drive a huge wedge through the panzers, isolate the spearhead and open up the entire battle for France once more. But on visiting Général Billotte, commander of the French First Army Group in the north, he found him moribund with depression. 'No plan, no thought of a plan,' Ironside noted in his diary. 'Ready to be slaughtered.' Billotte and his immediate subordinate, Général Blanchard, commander of the First Army, promised to do what they could, but the French Army was largely dependent on telephone wire and dispatch riders to pass on orders. Commanders like Blanchard were struggling to communicate with their forces; a dispatch rider could head out first thing in the morning and run into roads clogged with refugees. It might take the best part of the day to reach a unit and then get back again. Sometimes, he might never be seen again. Even if orders did reach division or corps headquarters, these would then have to send out orders in turn. Once those were received, the men then had to move into position. On top of that, the French Army was not designed or trained to operate with speed. Some two million people had fled their homes in the Low Countries and northern France. The populations of Tourcoing and Lille dropped from around 400,000 to just 40,000, and Rheims from 250,000 to 5,000. Add all these factors together and the inability of the French to move even comparatively small distances becomes a little more understandable, if not excusable.
In the end, only two British columns, each consisting of an infantry and armoured battalion, a battery of field artillery and anti-tank guns, and a few recce motorcycles and a handful of French tanks were all that could be mustered in time for the planned counter-attack at Arras. Crucially, there was absolutely no air support, not from the RAF or from the Armée de l'Air. Squadron Leader Darley was discovering just how impossible it was to control his fighter aircraft when phone lines were repeatedly cut and the armies retreated. 'The army retreated,' he said, 'and the first thing they left behind were the field telephones, and so our information that was getting through was nil.' Rather than a strike that would slice through the southern German thrust, the British counter-attack was more of a demonstration south from Arras and nothing more. At any rate, it soon ran out of steam and Rommel's forces, together with the rookie SS-Totenkopf, were able to regain their balance, isolate this key town, and then push on north towards Béthune.
None the less, it had shocked the Germans. As Generalmajor Rommel wrote to his wife, Lucie, about 'very powerful armoured forces' thrusting out of Arras, 'The anti-tank guns which we quickly deployed showed themselves to be far too light to be effective against the heavily armoured British tanks.' He was not alone in being impressed by the attack. 'A critical moment in the drive came just as my forces had reached the Channel,' noted Feldmarschall von Rundstedt, commander of Armeegruppe A. 'It was caused by a British counter-stroke southward from Arras on May 21. For a short time it was feared that our armoured divisions would be cut off before the infantry divisions could come up to support them. None of the French counter-attacks carried any serious threat as this one did.'
The failure of this counter-attack signalled the last hope for the northern Allied armies. The Belgian and French armies and the tiny British BEF were being corralled into a pocket – a long, increasingly narrow wedge of Flanders, crammed not only with troops and trucks and tanks and artillery pieces, but also refugees. It was a corridor of military failure and civilian misery.
Paul Reynaud was like a man in a ship that had first sprung a small leak but now had many, and although he was frantically baling out water as quickly as possible, the boat was still sinking. But a man who is drowning does not want to give up on life. Reynaud kept baling.
Daladier was finally shifted sideways, and Reynaud appointed himself Minister of National Defence and War. At the same time, he also finally sacked his bête noire, Gamelin, and replaced him with Général Weygand, who was recalled from Beirut. Also brought back to France from Spain, where he was Ambassador, was Maréchal Philippe Pétain, one of the great heroes of France and known to every Frenchman alive for leading the resistance and victory at Verdun, the greatest and most traumatic French battle of the last war. 'He seemed to everyone,' wrote Reynaud, 'like a living symbol of victory and honour.' Reynaud hoped these two men, with their wealth of experience, authority and determination to never surrender, would add some much-needed resolve and backbone.
Weygand arrived at General HQ at Montry on the 19th and insisted on installing himself and his staff there. Despite his age, he was a whirlwind of energy. André Beaufre was delighted and was astonished to see the new C-in-C descend the stairs four at a time after his first lengthy briefing and go for a 100-yard dash across the lawn to freshen himself up. 'The morning he took over,' noted Beaufre, 'the whole tone of orders changed. The High Command became a dynamo of energy.'
Yet however admirable were this septuagenarian's energy levels, it still took time for him to take over, get briefed, see the front (even though he risked a plane ride to do so more quickly), assemble the senior commanders and explain the new plan. One of his first orders was to clear the roads of refugees for all but six hours a day; incredibly, no one had thought to do this up until then. But it wasn't until 21 May, as the British were thrusting south from Arras, that he briefed the Belgians, British and his own forces at Ypres Town Hall, rebuilt since the end of the last war but about to be in the firing line again. It was perfectly obvious what needed to be done: the German southern thrust had to be severed and isolated and a continuous front re-established. Sadly, this should have happened days earlier. Weygand's plan was for the Northern Armies and the British to strike south, but it would have meant the Belgians taking over more of the northern front and ceding lots of their own territory at the same time. In any case, it was simply all too late. Most of the divisions were now battling to hold a shaky front. The French had been too exhausted to join the British at Arras and were now in even worse shape. Orders were issued – the attack would take place on 26 May – and hope was briefly rekindled at the highest quarters, but it had no chance of success. As it was, the British main supply route through Le Havre had already been cut off by the panzers, which meant they were soon going to run out of both ammunition and rations. How they were going to join a major thrust on a scale that had any chance of success in such circumstances was not clear.
Far clearer was the sudden realization in Ironside and Gort's minds that it was all over in France and that they needed to get what they could of the BEF out of there and bring them home before they were completely encircled and cut off.
Among those now in France, supporting the panzers in Armeegruppe A and hurrying across France, was Leutnant Siegfried Knappe and his 24. Artillery Battalion. Part of the follow-up forces, it had had a long trek from Cologne, as it followed the route of battle, seeing more and more carnage and destruction the closer it got to the fighting. Knappe was disturbed by the endless numbers of shell holes, destroyed buildings and dead cattle, with their stinking, bloated carcasses. 'I learned that the smell of rotting flesh, dust, burned powder, smoke and petrol was the smell of combat,' he recorded. Like so many soldiers, he also found his first sight of dead men deeply shocking. These had been French colonial troops, with mouths open and eyes still wide, limbs askew. 'It was devastating to realize this was what we had to look forward to, every day, day after day, until the war was over,' he wrote. 'We had been trained for combat, however, and we had to learn to accept the ever-present nearness of death.'
Hans von Luck was still in the vanguard of Rommel's advance, although while skirting along the La Bassée Canal looking for a crossing point, he was sniped at and hit in the hand. His pistol whirled through the air, several of his fingertips had been hit and he was bleeding profusely. It looked worse than it was, however, and soon after, with his arm in a sling and hand heavily bandaged, he was back with his men.
Rommel's men may have been still actively engaged, but those panzer divisions that had reached the coast had been forced to halt as they awaited orders. They had finally been ordered to push northwards on 21 May, much to General Guderian's relief. Ahead lay the channel ports of Boulogne, Calais and Dunkirk. Beyond them was Armeegruppe B.
Three days later and the British garrisons in Boulogne and Calais were still holding out but only just. It was at this moment, at 12.45 p.m., that Guderian received an urgent order, from Hitler himself, to halt along a line running north-west of Arras to Gravelines, just south of Dunkirk. Guderian was speechless. Momentum was with them – another day and they could close the ring entirely.
So too was General Halder, who had already countermanded such an order from von Rundstedt, recognizing that it was, in the circumstances, the wrong decision. Von Rundstedt had then taken this to the OKW, who had referred it to Hitler, who had then supported the original decision to halt and overruled Halder and the authority of von Brauchitsch, the Army C-in-C.
In Berlin, General Walter Warlimont had heard about it through the Army and was equally flabbergasted. It seemed to him to be entirely incomprehensible. He immediately hurried to see Jodl and find out what on earth was going on and learned that Keitel and Hitler had agreed that the coastal region in Flanders was too marshy for tanks, while Göring had assured them his Luftwaffe could finish off the encirclement. 'This being the state of affairs,' noted Warlimont, 'it soon became clear that it was entirely useless for me to emphasize that I had spent many holidays on the Belgian coast in the years before the war and therefore had personal knowledge of the fact that the terrain in Flanders had altered considerably since 1918.' He also expressed his doubts about Göring's boast, but this had no impact either.
At any rate, British intelligence picked up the details of the order and it was passed on to Gort's headquarters. Gort, no intellectual, but a man unafraid of tough decisions, now made one of his toughest. It was time to try and get the BEF home.
CHAPTER 23
Britain's Darkest Hour
BACK IN APRIL the previous year, President Roosevelt managed to get Congress to finally pass the Administrative Reorganization Act after two years of wrangling. Its name suggested it was little more than a dull piece of governmental bureaucracy, but actually it was something altogether more radical. Under this Act, lots of Government agencies and bureaus, previously under the oversight of Congress, were moved under the authority of a newly created Executive Office of the President. Among those shifted under White House control were the Army–Navy Munitions Board, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Bureau of the Budget and the National Resources Planning Board. Also included in the terms of the Act was the Office of Emergency Management (OEM), which gave provision for the President to set up a new and special agency to deal with defence or any other emergency under his direct authority.
The significance of this act was not felt immediately, but Congress had, in fact, given the President enormous new powers to lead the US without consulting with either his administration or Congress. In other words, he could choose specific men to do specific tasks for the nation without challenge. It was hardly democratic but it not only suited Roosevelt's leadership and management style, it also ensured a far more focused and less fractious way of managing the proposed rearming of America.
For more than a year after the Act was passed, Roosevelt had not called upon the Office of Emergency Management, but now, on 25 May, he did. He planned to use it as the hub for other organizations, not least the National Defense Advisory Commission (NDAC). His idea was to gather together a group of industrialists and businessmen, rather than politicians, just as General Marshall had suggested, to advise on how best to make a massive and rapid expansion of the US's armed forces and defences.
But who were the right people for this new advisory committee? Roosevelt had conferred with Bernard Baruch, a hugely successful financier and long-time political advisor of both President Wilson and FDR. During the last war, Baruch had chaired the War Industries Board and very successfully too. Aged seventy in 1940, he was happier playing the elder statesman and being a sounding board than taking on an active position, but as an ardent interventionist he was only too happy to suggest names to the President.
In fact, it had been just one name. 'First, Knudsen,' he had told FDR, 'second, Knudsen; third, Knudsen.'
Bill Knudsen was the President of General Motors and was quite simply a giant of the automobile industry. He was physically pretty big too, standing at six foot four inches, with broad shoulders, a mop of neatly combed silver hair and matching moustache. Gentle and kindly-looking, he was a highly moral and honourable man, but also an extremely tough, determined and brilliant businessman and a superb engineer.
Born in Denmark in 1879, he had emigrated, aged twenty, in 1900, and on arriving in New York had worked first in shipbuilding, then repairing railway locomotives, before landing a job building bicycles in Buffalo for John R. Keim. However, Keim was switching to making steam engines, so Knudsen began building those instead and in the process learned about the importance of machine tools and how to build them.
A machine tool was a name that could be applied to any machine that could cut metal into identical shapes. It could do this in a number of ways, whether by drilling holes and shapes, turning like a lathe, grinding or cutting, or shearing and pressing. It was machine tools that could drill lumps of metal into engine blocks or turn and stamp pistons, and could press sheets of metal to make car doors, for example. Machine tools, of course, had to be made in the first place and were both incredibly complicated and time-consuming to construct, and had to be custom-made, so they were incredibly expensive. But once done, as Bill Knudsen realized during his time with Keim, these bespoke, intricate tools then made mass production possible. They were, in fact, the backbone of mass production and in turn warfare. This meant the machine-tool-makers themselves were the key to the machine age. And they were a rare and very specialized breed.
While at Keim, Knudsen developed a new type of alloy and began an assembly line making steel axle housings for Henry Ford's burgeoning motor car business in Detroit. Ford later bought Keim outright, and Knudsen was given the task of speeding up production. He concluded that the key to mass production was not speed per se, but rather creating a continuous and linear sequence that ensured every part could be fitted precisely where and when it was needed. 'Everything,' he said, 'depends upon the sequence of an operation and the flow of material.' Costs could be kept down not by cutting corners on materials but by economies of scale and by reducing the number and complexity of parts. Simplicity of both parts and construction was key. The less complex the parts, the easier they were to make, and the easier they were to make, the less the cost. The less the cost, the greater the demand for the end product.
Just as crucial was accuracy – each different part had to be exactly the same. Knudsen banned all files and hammers – if a part didn't fit, it would be sent back. 'Accuracy,' he said, 'is the only straight line in production.'
These factors were what made the Model T the first mass-produced car of the machine age. Until then, automobiles had been a luxury item of the privileged few. The Model T put cars in reach of the common man. What Knudsen had achieved for Ford was the creation of a simple production line, and one that could be readily replicated. To make a Ford car did not require vast numbers of skilled workers – it required men to assemble the bits in a simple and efficient way. This meant it was easy to set up branch factories – one factory was just like another – which were based on the principle of laying out the machinery first, then working out the flow of material, and then building the factory around it. By 1916, Ford had no fewer than twenty-eight branch factories.
Where Knudsen and Henry Ford began to diverge was over the patriarch's continued insistence that one model of car was enough. Knudsen believed that the way to sell more cars was not to keep churning out exactly the same automobile but to make punters feel dissatisfied with their current car and want better. In 1921, he left Ford and moved to General Motors, a failing company that had bought up many smaller businesses such as Buick, Pontiac, Oakland and Chevrolet. It was Chevrolet, almost finished as a car manufacturer, that Knudsen was brought in to save. And save it he did. Using the principles of the assembly line, he developed what became known as 'flexible mass production' – that is, one that enabled easy modification and change. This he did by discarding single-purpose machine tools and bringing in new ones that could be adapted to making different shapes and designs. Model Ts had been outselling Chevys at thirteen to one, but the 1926 Chevrolet cut that advantage to two to one. The 1927 Chevy did even better, selling over a million cars and forcing Ford to finally abandon the Model T.
Bigger, better, faster, more comfortable Chevys continued to appear every year, so that by 1931 Chevrolet was finally outselling Ford. Knudsen had proved that it was possible to introduce new products swiftly in response to new technology or changing demands without interrupting the flow of production. By 1937, he was President of General Motors, the biggest car manufacturer in the world. The point was, the principles he had applied to the production of automobiles could just as easily be applied to tanks and aircraft, as Bernard Baruch was well aware. This was why he had recommended to Roosevelt that he call up Bill Knudsen without delay.
Sure enough, Roosevelt duly rang Knudsen at GM and personally invited him to come to Washington on Wednesday, 29 May. He was met at the White House by Harry Hopkins, who told him in a hushed and conspiratorial tone, 'Mr Knudsen, the President has asked me to tell you that we can't pay you anything, and he wants you to get a leave of absence from your company.'
'I don't expect a pay check,' Knudsen told him. As far as he was concerned, America had been good to him, he had enough money in the bank, and he was more than willing to step down from GM to do his bit for his adopted country.
At the subsequent meeting, Knudsen met the six other people Roosevelt had assembled, all of whom had a specific role to play. Among them were Edward R. Stettinius Jr, for example, the Chairman of the United States Steel Corporation, who was to oversee the steady flow of raw materials, and Sidney Hillman, President of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America, who was to head a division that would train apprentices for non-combat duties from airfield ground crews to camp cooks. Among the others were Chester C. Davis, the Defense Commissioner for Agriculture and a highly able administrator, brought in to help ensure there was no conflict between agricultural and defence policies, and Ralph Budd, Chair of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad, to advise on all transportation problems and prevent bottlenecks. Knudsen's task was to manage and advise all industrial manufacture of tanks, aircraft, engines, uniforms and other key war materiel. Only he, Stettinius and Hillman would be working full time.
Roosevelt had formed the National Defense Advisory Commission to kick-start industrial mobilization without Congress, politics and red tape getting in the way, but it was clear during that first meeting that its workings had not yet been thought through. This was hardly surprising, though, as the President had only decided on its formation a few days earlier. When Knudsen asked who was in overall charge, the President replied with a laugh, 'I guess I am.' After vaguely outlining his thoughts, the meeting ended with the promise that they would reconvene in a fortnight. The term 'advisory' was, however, clearly something of a misnomer. FDR didn't want these men advising. He wanted them – and Knudsen, Stettinius and Hillman especially – heading their new divisions, or departments, within the committee. The trouble was, the authority for them to do so was rather vague.
Knudsen left the meeting and returned to Detroit for one last weekend at home thinking long and hard about just what it was he was being asked to do and how he was going to do it.
In France, René de Chambrun had returned to the headquarters of the Corps of Liaison Officers near Hazebrouck on the morning of 26 May, and reported to his boss, Colonel de Cardes. They were now completely surrounded.
'You are to try and get to Paris,' Cardes told him. 'I know it will not be an easy job, but these documents must not fall into enemy hands, and I want them to be at our headquarters as soon as possible.' The only way for him to get there, Cardes explained, was to take a ship to England from Dunkirk and then to fly to Paris. Having hastily scribbled a note for his wife, he gave the pile of documents to Chambrun and told him not to waste any time.
Hurrying to Général Blanchard's headquarters nearby, he found a staff chauffeur prepared to take him to Dunkirk and off they went, dodging marauding Stukas all the way.
Meanwhile, the 6th Green Howards were also making their way to Dunkirk. Private Bill Cheall was not happy. He was hungry, no one seemed to know what the hell was going on, and none of them had enough weapons or ammunition. In fact, he reckoned he and his pals had had a pretty rough ride since arriving in March. Having joined his TA battalion, the 6th Green Howards, just before the outbreak of war, they had been given, as TA rather than Regular Army, very basic training indeed, with no real weapons training or tactical instruction. It had been intended that this would come in the fullness of time once the Army began to grow. When they were sent to France, it was as a labour battalion, and Cheall had taken a very poor view of their first task, which had been building latrines. Relief had come from his company commander, Major Petch, who asked him to become his batman – his soldier-servant. 'I was a little browned off with unsoldierly work,' admitted Cheall, 'so I said yes.'
Then suddenly, with the German onslaught underway, they had been ordered forward and by 22 May were holding a stretch of the line along the River Scarpe to the east of Arras, still armed with only their rifles and now officially on active service, although the part where they were trained how to fight had never actually happened. They were not there long before being ordered north-west. Bombed on Vimy Ridge, where British, French and Canadians had fought the Germans a generation earlier, they then both marched and were later entrucked up to the coast, where they took up new positions along the River Aa, around Gravelines, on the morning of 23 May. They hadn't slept a wink for two days and now on half-rations were ferociously hungry too. They had soon found themselves in the thick of the fighting, firing at German panzers with Boyes anti-tank rifles none of them had ever used before. Here they had lost 'some good boys' but, to their credit, had seen off their attackers.
Then came the order to evacuate their position around Gravelines and fall back to the town of Bergues, just a few miles from Dunkirk. This was soon countermanded and they were sent to Haeghe Meulen, a few miles to the east of Bergues. Here they were to protect the perimeter around Dunkirk as the rest of the BEF retreated to the port. Given better weapons and plenty of ammunition, Cheall and his mates were none the less keenly aware how undertrained they were. 'But we were determined to give as good as we got,' he noted, 'and show the Jerries that we were not going to be a walkover.'
Also retreating were Capitaine Barlone and his Horse Transport Company attached to 2nd North African Division. There was no news, there were no newspapers and there was no wireless radio, but there were plenty of rumours, one of which was now confirmed – that the Germans had reached the Channel coast. 'So we are encircled!' he scribbled in his diary. 'It's flabbergasting!' Two days later, he received orders to retreat to Dunkirk, moving 15–25 miles by night. Everyone was pulling back, it seemed, including Lieutenant Norman Field and the 2nd Royal Fusiliers. They had been in France since the previous autumn, but also part of III Corps, their division, the 4th Infantry, had been in reserve during the BEF's move to the Dyle Line, and they had been based in Mouvaux, between Lille and Tourcoing. Apart from taking potshots at aircraft, they had barely seen any action at all but were part of the northern British line holding the German 6. Armee at bay. He didn't have much idea what was going on. 'We would have a few skirmishes with the Germans until we were told to withdraw again,' he says. 'It was all very peculiar and frightening. We didn't know what the next day would bring.'
Nor did General Gort, although he had warned London that it was likely most of the BEF and its equipment would be left behind in France, despite the evacuation order. In fact, RAF squadrons had been returning to England for some days, replaced by squadrons flying from the UK, while the 'useless mouths' – the wounded, sick and all non-combat troops – had evacuated through the Channel ports as early as 19 May, the same day warning had been given to the Director of Military Operations and Plans at the War Office to start considering an evacuation. Three days later, more advanced preparations were underway at the Admiralty for what was to be called Operation DYNAMO.
Boulogne had been evacuated on 23 May. One of those heading back to England through the port was Squadron Leader George Darley; much of the Air Component were already heading home, and, unable to even remotely keep an Operations Room functioning, he had been recalled. Boulogne surrendered two days later; Calais was still holding out, but it clearly would not be long before the British-held port was forced to surrender too. That left just Dunkirk, and it was from here that the evacuation of the BEF, or whatever small proportion was lifted off, would take place. With the co-operation of Général Blanchard, the French First Army commander, who seems to have stoically accepted the inevitable, Gort worked out an agreed plan. On the night of 26–27 May, British I and II Corps would leave a rearguard then fall back into the main central corridor. Blanchard's men would extend the line. The following night, the mass of the BEF would fall back again, behind another river line – the idea was to fight by day and fall back by night. Meanwhile, a perimeter, five miles inland and following a canal that ran all the way to Nieuport, twelve miles to the east, would be prepared. This was where Bill Cheall and his mates were now getting ready. There were not enough men to man a continuous line along the southern flank, so instead troops would defend highpoints, villages and towns. The idea was that these would keep the Germans along the southern flank of the corridor busy for long enough to allow the bulk of the BEF, both men and machinery, to reach Dunkirk. No one, however, including Gort, was very optimistic that DYNAMO would be a success.
On Saturday, 25 May, Edward Spears flew by Blenheim to Paris, as Churchill's special emissary. He was to be liaison officer to Paul Reynaud, and as he flew over Normandy on that perfect early summer's morning, he thought it had never looked lovelier or more somnolent. Safely reaching Paris, he hurried to the Quai D'Orsay, met Reynaud and was then ushered into his study to meet other members of the Comité de Guerre, including the new C-in-C, Général Weygand, Amiral Darlan and the Maréchal of France himself, Pétain.
During their talks, at no point had Spears been given the impression all was lost; clearly, the Northern Armies were in grave peril but the idea that France was about to collapse entirely still seemed, to him at any rate, remote. And then they were interrupted by an officer from Blanchard's Army Group HQ. Spears listened with mounting shock as Commandant Fauvelle began to make his report. 'As I realized that his catastrophic defeatism seemed to some extent at least to be accepted as the reflection of the real position,' he noted, 'I felt cold fingers turning my heart to stone. I have in my time seen broken men, but never before one deliquescent, that is, in a state where he was fit only to be scraped up with a spoon or mopped up.'
Spears listened, appalled, as Weygand and Fauvelle continued discussing the situation until, with exasperation, Weygand lifted his hands and said, 'This war is sheer madness! We have gone to war with a 1918 army against a German army of 1939!'
The discussions continued. A new chain of command was agreed. It was also accepted there was now no chance of saving the Northern Armies from the south – they were doomed. But Weygand vowed to fight on, come what may. Before leaving, however, Spears asked why on earth nothing had been done to stop German armoured columns running amok through France. Why, he asked, had roadblocks not been organized, with 75mm guns placed on lorries? A simple order to civilians to telephone ahead the direction these columns were heading would have made such preparations possible. Bridges could be blown. How hard could it be?
'A very interesting idea,' Weygand replied. 'I will consider it.'
Monday, 27 May, was to prove to be one of Britain's most perilous days in its entire history. The night before, following a day of National Prayer at home called for by King George VI, Operation DYNAMO was put into effect on Sunday evening, 26 May, under the control of Vice-Admiral Bertram Ramsay from Dover. Naval and auxiliary naval vessels, channel steamers and a host of 'little ships' – small, privately owned vessels – had been called upon to carry out the hazardous evacuation. Because of minefields, the route was also much longer than it might have normally been.
Yet it was not the chances of the evacuation that were the concern that day, but the development of a potentially catastrophic split in the War Cabinet – one that could yet see Britain capitulate.
During the first Cabinet meeting the previous day, Lord Halifax, the most respected politician in Britain, the country's Foreign Minister, a man whose very name was a byword for good sense and pragmatism, had not only accepted that the Nazis were now militarily unbeatable, but that Britain should, via Italian intermediaries, explore the possibility of peace talks.
Winston Churchill, the new Prime Minster, whose judgement was widely held to be questionable, and who to many people was little more than a romantic old soak, thought this was tantamount to suicide. He was insisting Britain should never accept Nazi domination of Europe, that Britain and its Empire and Dominions should never even think about entering into talks because to do so would inevitably mean agreeing to terms that would affect their complete liberty and independence, which, to his mind, was utterly unacceptable.
The discussion was not resolved then, because there was the service of National Prayer in Westminster Abbey followed by a visit from Paul Reynaud. At the next Cabinet that Sunday, Halifax had been more bullish, unable to understand what harm there was in putting out feelers. Churchill replied that even to do that, to give the Germans a whiff of the possibility of suing for terms, would be a catastrophic sign of weakness that would send a terrible message to the entire world. The discussion became heated between the two, while the other three listened but added little. Churchill was keenly aware that if they sided with Halifax, he would be obliged to go along with them or resign, which amounted to the same thing. 'Herr Hitler has the whip hand,' Churchill told them. 'The only thing to do is to show him that he cannot conquer this country.'
With no resolution in sight, Churchill ended the meeting that day with vague agreements that Halifax should pursue possible means of an approach to the Italians, but clearly had no intention of letting anything of the sort occur. But it was late, and they needed clearer heads. The following morning, however, it would have to be thrashed out once and for all. Later, after dining with Anthony Eden, his new Minister for War, he confessed to feeling physically sick with anxiety.
So Monday, 27 May, dawned. Ironically, the battle to decide Britain's future lay in Whitehall, not Flanders. Churchill understood that the key figure was Chamberlain. The two new Labour men, Attlee and Greenwood, did not have the influence to decide this issue, but the former PM most certainly did. Naturally, Chamberlain would be most likely to side with Halifax. He was, in fact, not at all well and was suffering from cancer, although it had not yet been diagnosed, but he had loyally and tirelessly served his replacement since his forced resignation.
Not until the afternoon Cabinet meeting did the question of sending peace feelers raise itself. Halifax had drafted a letter to Mussolini, which he read out. When Churchill again underlined the dangers of going down this route, Halifax, normally so calm and measured, lost his temper. He simply could not understand the harm in making overtures. The argument rambled on, with Halifax eventually threatening his resignation, an act that would very likely bring down the Government at the worst possible moment. He stormed out into the garden at No. 10, Churchill following, doing his best to calm him.
News later arrived that Belgium had surrendered – it had been inevitable, but their doing so left a huge hole in the line that threatened the withdrawal of the BEF. The last Cabinet meeting of the day dealt with the implications of this latest piece of bad news. And fewer than 8,000 troops of the BEF out of some half a million in France had been lifted off on the first day of the evacuation. Britain, too, now stood on the brink.
That night, Lieutenant Norman Field, as Battalion Adjutant, was heavily involved in moving his battalion back yet again, this time behind the River Lys. Vehicles arrived in the rain at around 11 p.m. and the move got underway. Meanwhile, 3rd Division, at the end of II Corps's line, had to move behind 4th and 5th Divisions and fill the hole left by the Belgians on the corps's left flank. It meant travelling the entire division some fifty miles, yet by morning, under the careful eye of their commander, Major-General Bernard Montgomery, they managed it. Operationally, it was a superb achievement which gave the BEF a small, but crucial, breathing space.
Back in London, Churchill and Chamberlain had talked man-to-man, each expressing his loyalty to the other. Churchill was conscious that at no point had Chamberlain spoken for Halifax's view and sensed he now had the crucial support he needed. Later, the PM addressed the wider Cabinet, telling them that despite the terrible news from France, and despite the fact that the Germans would undoubtedly soon turn their attentions to Britain and look to invade, such an operation would be very difficult for them and it was far better for Britain to fight it out. At this there was only approval and no dissent.
With Chamberlain behind him and also the wider Cabinet, at the next War Cabinet meeting, that evening, Churchill ruthlessly dismissed any further talk of peace talks. There would be none. Halifax, beaten, raised no further objection. The crisis was over, never to be mentioned again.
Britain would fight on.
CHAPTER 24
Getting Away
FROM THE MOMENT Churchill won his personal battle with Halifax, Britain's fortunes took a perceptible turn for the better. There was no getting away from the scale of defeat in France, but although Hitler's halt order had been lifted on the afternoon of 26 May, the BEF's gradual retreat to the Dunkirk perimeter had worked and the perimeter itself was holding. The land round about was perfectly dry, but it was flat as a board, advancing panzers could be seen for miles, and the area was riddled with canals and dykes that were impassable to tanks. All the BEF was inside the perimeter by 30 May, and all bridges were blown. What the Germans discovered was that it was a slow and difficult business budging an enemy that was well dug in and determined not to be budged.
Among those trying hard not to budge were Bill Cheall and his comrades in the 6th Green Howards. Bill reckoned morale was good after their encouraging brush with the enemy at Gravelines, and he, for one, had faith in their officers. On the 29th, their positions were in the process of being taken over by the Welsh Guards when they were attacked and almost an entire platoon in D Company killed. However, the attack was successfully beaten off and the men were ordered to head for the beaches.
As they neared them, the degree of destruction increased. A huge pall of black smoke hung over the town from the oil depots which had been hit by bombs, but there were burning vehicles and thousands more abandoned, and bodies, both troops and civilians, were lying unburied. Dead livestock lay bloated, while packs of dogs, mad and feral, scavenged greedily. Above them, somewhere beyond the pall, the sound of aircraft could be heard, while all around them guns boomed and small arms chattered and rang out.
They reached the promenade at Bray-Dunes, then walked along until they were among the dunes and clambered down on to the beach. They had been told to congregate at the 23rd Division assembly point, but they couldn't find it and suddenly no one knew what to do for the best, so they stood about, waiting, hoping, until darkness came. The following morning, they were finally told to head to Dunkirk itself, a few miles along the beach. As they were trudging along, a German fighter swooped down low, machine-gunning. They fired their rifles, but without success.
Eventually, they reached the East Mole. This was a narrow wooden pier which had not been hit by the Germans and lay directly under the pall of smoke. It had initially been thought it would not be strong enough to take ships, but early on the 28th a destroyer had pulled alongside it successfully and since then it had been in constant use. As a result, the numbers of men lifted off had dramatically increased. One bomb had hit it but not exploded, going straight through and out the other side. Planks had been strung across the hole. It was another stroke of luck. At last, Cheall stepped aboard a ferry, called The Lady of the Mann. At around six o'clock on 31 May, the boat slipped its moorings and set sail for England.
Also getting away were thousands of French troops, including Capitaine Barlone. By 29 May, he had lost all contact with division headquarters but was still with some of the fighting units. The 13th Rifles had been fighting, but only had 500 men left and most of the officers had been killed. It was a similar story for the 22nd Rifles, but Barlone was impressed with the way the NCOs were holding the men together. Despite the immense congestion, despite artillery fire, and despite being knocked by a horse himself, they trudged on towards Dunkirk. 'At some distance we see a soldier who appears to be quietly sitting in the road leaning on a sack,' he noted. 'The unfortunate fellow has had half his head blown away – a body crowned with an awful mass of mangled flesh.'
They reached Bray-Dunes and carried out a head count: there were just 1,250 men. 'That is all that remains of our fine North African Division of 18,000 men,' he scribbled. 'The rest: killed, wounded, prisoners, missing.' They made their way to the town, took shelter in bombed-out buildings as more and more German shells came crashing over, then at around 9 p.m. received orders to head for the Mole. Smoke filled the air, above planes were still circling, then sticks of bombs began falling. They fell flat on the ground, then picked themselves up again and dusted themselves down, although four of Barlone's men were killed and others wounded. It seemed they weren't ready to embark just yet, so they took shelter in the dunes until finally they were called back and at three o'clock in the morning on the 31st they boarded two ships, the Keremah and the Hebe, Barlone getting on the latter. By noon that day, 165,000 men had been successfully lifted off. It was already many, many more than had been feared a few days earlier.
Norman Field and the 2nd Royal Fusiliers were among those still defending the perimeter. Their positions were on the eastern edge, just west of Nieuport. There was no sign of any enemy troops, but the shelling was getting worse and worse. At one point, one of the most popular men in the battalion, Captain Malcolm Blair, who had been missing, turned up along with some others, giving them all a much-needed morale boost. A few hours later, however, he was dead, killed instantly by a direct shell blast. 'Tears came to my eyes,' admitted Field. 'It was bloody awful.'
Meanwhile, René de Chambrun had successfully made it back to Paris after his long, round-about trip via boat from Dunkirk to England and then by plane back to France. Having hurried to Vincennes and safely delivered the papers for Général Weygand, he had hastened to his home in the Place du Palais Bourbon. Every time he had felt in any real danger during these past weeks, he had immediately thought of his wife and wondered whether he would ever see her again, so it was an enormous relief to discover she was there. She was every bit as relieved to see him; she'd not received one of his letters and had had no idea whether he was even still alive. 'I believe that my unexpected return to Paris,' he wrote, 'was the happiest moment in our lives.'
No sooner had he walked through the door, however, than his wife was rung by William Bullitt, the US Ambassador. When she explained her husband had just arrived, he asked to speak to him and invited him to the embassy for a talk. Chambrun duly did as he was asked, and after he had given an account of what had been going on as he had seen it, Bullitt suggested he might go to Washington to talk to the President.
Early the next morning, 2 June, Chambrun answered the telephone to discover one of Weygand's aides-de-camp on the line, ordering him to report to the general at seven o'clock that evening. He added that Chambrun should be ready to take the first Clipper and fly to the United States.
Meanwhile, at Dunkirk, it was not until late on the 31st that the Royal Fusiliers had finally received orders to pull back to La Panne on the coast; their part of the perimeter was being abandoned. Only 150 men survived from the 800-strong battalion, and under cover of darkness, and having immobilized their remaining vehicles by wrecking the engines, they headed off. On reaching the beach, they saw the evacuation taking place directly off the sands, but they soon came under fire once more. Field took cover in a broken house but was hit by a piece of white-hot shrapnel in his hand. 'I realized I'd been clobbered,' he said, 'but I didn't feel a thing, not then.' The shelling halted the evacuation, but there were around 7,000 men from the 3rd and 4th Divisions on the beach at La Panne. The intense barrage eventually stopped, and the evacuation began once more. With his wounded hand, Field was lucky enough to be put on a canvas rowing boat and ferried on to a minesweeper, HMS Speedwell. He fell asleep almost immediately, to be woken by the violent zig-zagging of the ship and the sound of crashing bombs. 'We were being dive-bombed by eight Stukas,' he recalled. 'They missed us. All I could see out of the corner of my eye were the spikes of water going up as some bombs landed in the sea only ten or fifteen yards away. Very scary.'
A handful of British and French battalions continued to successfully hold the bulk of the perimeter against four German divisions. Again, they were showing what determined defence in a good position could achieve, and that these comparatively few men, so outnumbered, held out so long was proving just what could and should have been achieved at Sedan and Dinant and Monthermé.
All senior British officers had now left. Commanding the rearguard was Major-General Harold Alexander, late of the Irish Guards and for much of the campaign commander of I Corps. Surely one of the most phlegmatic, calm and measured men in the British Army, he also happened to be one of the most experienced. Alexander was forty-nine, debonair and a much-decorated hero of the last war. He also had the unique qualification of having commanded men in combat at every level of rank up to major-general, including Germans, when, following the end of the Great War, he had been asked to command the Baltic Landwehr in Latvia against the Russians. He was fluent in seven languages, including, naturally, French, was amusing and self-effacing, and was in every way the ideal man to guide the final stages of the evacuation. Working together with the French Amiral Jean-Marie Abrial, he decided to continue the evacuation through the night of 2–3 June and try and lift all the remaining men. By this time, the perimeter had shrunk and it was now only the French who were making a last-ditch stand as German troops finally crept within spitting distance of the town. By that last night, there were just 30,000 French and 5,000 Tommies remaining. Naval demolition parties blew what remained of the port during the day while by darkness Vice-Admiral Ramsay back in Dover had assembled a mixed ensemble of some twenty-four destroyers and personnel ships and a host of further minesweepers and other vessels. The first troops began embarking at 9 p.m., with the harbour already being shelled by German guns. Burning fires didn't help, but still the Mole had not been hit – or rather, had not been put out of action. At around 11.30 p.m., Alexander and his Senior Naval Officer boarded a motor launch and sped down the length of the beach calling out for any stragglers. Satisfied they had now got the lot, Alexander sent one last signal: 'BEF evacuated. Returning now', and set sail for home. Operation DYNAMO was over, and some 338,000 troops, including nearly 140,000 French, had been safely lifted and taken back to England to fight another day. It was almost as much a miracle as the scale of the German victory.
The Italian leadership in Rome had been watching the events in France and the Low Countries intently, and by the last week of May Mussolini had decided the time had at last come to intervene and enter the war on the side of their Axis partner. The decision had been prompted not only by the sweeping gains made by the Germans but also by the increasingly desperate diplomatic offers made by the French, whose ambassador, André François-Poncet, was reeling off names of French possessions in Africa they would be willing to barter in order for Italy to keep out of the war. Indeed, much of Reynaud's visit to London had been taken up with what Britain and France might jointly offer Italy. Very reluctantly, Churchill had even agreed to Reynaud's suggestion to ask President Roosevelt to contact Mussolini and suggest both Britain and France were ready to barter both possessions and economically in return for Italy staying out. Roosevelt did as he was asked, but his ambassador in Rome was given short shrift. It was too late, Ciano told him. Italy was now set on war.
Mussolini had rejected the last-ditch overtures safe in the knowledge that France believed itself to be finished – which meant, to all intents and purposes, she was finished. Britain was still talking tough, but its Army had been defeated and humiliated and over 85,000 vehicles and more than 2,500 artillery pieces had been left behind on the Continent. Many of its men had been rescued, but what would they fight with now? Surely, Mussolini gambled, Britain would follow France. Before long, both would be suing for peace. Even if Britain didn't, it would be so weakened that even Italy would be able to take it on and win.
Mussolini did not want to miss out. Egypt, he knew, was lightly defended. If he could take Cairo and the Suez Canal, the sea link with his East African possessions would be open once more. Libya could be joined at the hip to Egypt, Egypt to Sudan, Sudan to Abyssinia. He wanted a north-east African colonial empire. Furthermore, through the Canal, Italy could access the world's oceans.
On the other hand, if he left it until both Britain and France were beaten, then Germany, not Italy, would have claim to Egypt and the Suez Canal, and that was not worth thinking about. To earn his place at the peace table, and to have his chance to take Egypt, he needed to strike soon and delay no longer.
His generals were as unenthusiastic as ever, but he fobbed them off with talk of going on the defensive and using the opening stages of the war to attack British naval bases using naval and air power only. The importance of maintaining influence was the reason he gave them for declaring war – a line they appear to have swallowed. Certainly Badoglio, the Chief of Staff, did. The Duce also secured new authority over the armed services from a reluctant King Vittorio Emanuele.
Count Ciano had broadly come round to Mussolini's line of thinking, although he was concerned by the British stance. 'A painful conference with Sir Percy Loraine,' he noted on 28 May.
The British Ambassador was unequivocal: 'We shall answer war with war,' Loraine told him bluntly, 'but, notwithstanding this, my heart is filled with sadness to think that blood must flow between our countries.' Ciano replied that it was sad for him too, but he could see no other way out.
Ciano's comment revealed the dilemma Italy faced. Mussolini's ambition was both for Italy to be a great power but also for a reconstructed and peaceful Europe in which Fascism dominated. He wanted Italy to grow and develop, but the country was resource-poor, its industry under-developed compared with Germany, Britain and France, and agriculture was still the biggest employer, accounting for around 47 per cent of the workforce. At the same time, the population was growing; it was around forty-three million, a little larger than France and some four million smaller than Britain, but with much less living space. Overseas expansion was a means of solving this problem, as well as offering potentially vast economically exploitable territory. In any case, a country, and indeed regime, was simply not going to be taken seriously as a world power without imperial possessions. So for Mussolini there were a number of very good reasons to try and create a new Roman empire.
Mussolini had also enjoyed playing the role of arbitrator at Munich nearly two years earlier and had set himself up to play a similar role the previous summer. War had changed all that. The British blockade was hurting too. On the other hand, if Germany beat France and dominated all of Europe, not only would Italy's influence dwindle but the country would become an irrelevance and possibly even a vassal Nazi state, which would be disastrous for both him and the regime.
Therefore Mussolini felt he had no choice but to actively enter the war, and to do so before the fighting was over. His armed forces were not ready, it was true, but with France all but beaten, and Britain, he hoped, sure to sue for peace too, this would not matter. He viewed Hitler and the Nazis as allies, but his war would be a parallel one for dominance in the Mediterranean and African sphere. In other words, if Italy stayed out of the war, the regime would be finished; but if it entered the war, albeit without being remotely ready, there was a good chance it could gain much for not a huge amount. It was, however, a risk, as Ciano was all too well aware.
Events in the West had brought Mussolini's plans forward, and after negotiations with Hitler over the precise date, Monday, 10 June, was agreed upon as the day for Italy's entry into the war.
'The decision has been taken,' Ciano wrote on 30 May. 'The die is cast.'
In their appreciation of 29 May, Britain's Chiefs of Staff had warned that there was a good chance that the Germans would stabilize the front in France and concentrate right away on a major assault on Britain. This, of course, was a report tinged with panic and mostly drawn up during the dark early days of the Dunkirk evacuation. Clearer, calmer heads may well have realized that the logistics of bringing up air forces to the Channel coast, reorganizing a weary Army and gathering together enough shipping for an invasion would mean no such thing could happen in the short term, and to leave France, now on its knees and waiting for the executioner's axe to swing, with the chance to regroup, made no logical sense whatsoever. Be that as it may, the country was to be brought to a state of high alert.
Already, on 14 May, Anthony Eden, the Secretary of State for War, had called for men aged seventeen to sixty to form a new force of 'Local Defence Volunteers'. They would be organized and armed and expected to help defend the country in the event of a German invasion. Some quarter of a million volunteered within a week, including the Wiltshire farmer A. G. Street. Beaches, normally just readying themselves for a summer of holidaying, were mined and strewn with barbed wire, and signposts were taken down. Pillboxes were built along the coast, by rivers and at road junctions in huge numbers. New batteries of guns and searchlights were also put in place along the south coast.
From her flat in Hampstead, Gwladys Cox had been following events on the Continent. London, she thought, was now 'curiously calm', although the city seemed quieter. 'The theatres,' she noted, 'partly on account of the black-out, partly through fear of air-raids, are not booming as in the last war – that was a soldiers' war; this, we know, is a civilians' war as well.'
On 4 June, the Prime Minister addressed the House of Commons, warning them that while the evacuation of Dunkirk had been a 'miracle of deliverance', it was still a terrible defeat. Watching was Jock Colville, whose earlier grave concerns about Churchill's suitability to lead the country were rapidly melting away. So impressed was he by the speech, he even copied out a long extract for his diary. Later it was broadcast to the nation too and around the entire free world. 'Even though large tracts of Europe have fallen into the grip of the Gestapo, and all the odious apparatus of Nazi rule, we shall not flag or fail,' Churchill told them. 'We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France. We shall fight on the seas and oceans. We shall fight with growing strength in the air. We shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be. We shall fight on the beaches. We shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender.'
The speech sent out an important message of British intent and served as a rallying cry for the entire free world. Rhetoric like this was priceless. Even so, there was one place they would not be fighting the Germans for much longer, and that was Norway, where the decision had now been made, with the French, to evacuate Narvik, the last Allied bastion there. Narvik – the most important objective for the Allies – had been captured, with the German mountain troops there successfully pushed back. It was the one part of the land campaign that had actually witnessed an Allied victory. However, with disaster unfolding in France, sustaining Narvik was no longer a priority. The Allies were getting rather good at evacuating troops and a clean and swift operation to pick up the 24,500 troops from this northern Norwegian port was put in place and began on 4 June. Three days later, it was complete.
It was not, however, the end of the battle for Norway. Mirroring the opening of the campaign, German naval vessels were steaming towards the Leads at the same time, and unobserved. The idea had been Admiral Raeder's, who was given consent by Hitler to mount an attack on British shipping protecting the entrance to Narvik as a means of relieving the pressure on the mountain troops stranded there.
While Allied troops had been lifted from Narvik without the Germans knowing, so Raeder's force had slipped out of Kiel and into the North Sea without detection. All the Kriegsmarine's remaining heavy warships were now at sea: just two battle cruisers, one heavy cruiser, four destroyers and two torpedo boats. One of those battle cruisers, the Scharnhorst, was an enormous vessel not much smaller than the Bismarck and Tirpitz battleships. Capable of 31 knots and armed to the teeth with nine 11-inch guns and fifty-two further guns of smaller calibres, as well as six torpedo tubes, there was no doubting her firepower.
On board was Hans-Hellmuth Kirchner, just twenty years old and undergoing his officer training as a midshipman, or Fähnrich zur See. He had been born and brought up in Neubrandenburg; his father served as a U-boat commander in the last war and so, having completed school and then his stint with the Reichsarbeitsdienst, the Reich Labour Service, it was perhaps not surprising that Kirchner had chosen to follow in his father's footsteps and joined the Navy. After sailing training, including a lengthy journey around much of the world, he was given extensive naval artillery training, which was why, when posted to the Scharnhorst, he had been attached to the anti-aircraft guns. He was at his post when news quickly went around the ship that the British aircraft carrier Glorious had been spotted with an escort of two destroyers.
There was no question that Glorious had been caught napping. Since the Kriegsmarine had received its bloody nose at the start of the Norwegian campaign, naval engagements had all but ceased in the North Sea. Glorious was steaming back to Scapa at just 17 knots, and with none of her aircraft armed or ready. This was tragic complacency.
From his gun position, Kirchner could see the British aircraft carrier frantically signalling, flashing Morse signals, 'What ship? What ship?'
Moments later, Scharnhorst's 11-inch heavy guns opened fire, striking the aircraft carrier and immediately wrecking the main flight deck. 'As we approached the enemy formation, getting closer and closer,' noted Kirchner, 'the Glorious sustained hit after hit and finally went up in flames.' The two British destroyers Ardent and Acosta were under fire too, but still surged forward through their own smokescreen. Ardent launched eight torpedoes before being pummelled and sunk, and then Acosta managed to get a torpedo into the side of the Scharnhorst. Kirchner felt the entire superstructure waver and shake. The blast killed forty-eight of the crew, knocked out two of the engine rooms and reduced her speed to just 20 knots. Glorious, ablaze and rapidly filling with water, sank soon after, as did Acosta, but the destroyers' fearless attacks had put yet another of Germany's battleships out of action. Only around forty men out of 1,559 from the three British ships survived.
Scharnhorst limped to Trondheim, as the crew desperately tried to contain the damage. Many of the dead men had to be left floating in the flooded sections. Meanwhile, the last of the Allied troops had been lifted, as was the Norwegian King Haakon and his government. The Germans had been hunting for them since the invasion, but the King had repeatedly eluded capture. Also taken to Britain were most of the Norwegian Government's gold reserves. From Britain, the Norwegian King-in-Exile would continue the fight.
While the Scharnhorst was at Trondheim, Royal Navy torpedo-bombers from another carrier, Ark Royal, attacked her unsuccessfully, but a week later, on 20 June, the Scharnhorst's sister ship, the Gneisenau, was also hit by a torpedo from a British submarine. Both would be confined to dry docks for the rest of the year.
Losing any ship was a blow to the British, especially an aircraft carrier, but for the Kriegsmarine, the losses of the Norwegian campaign were disastrous. One of 2 heavy cruisers, 2 of 6 light cruisers, 10 of 20 destroyers, one torpedo boat and 6 U-boats had been sunk. A number had also been damaged and were undergoing costly and time-consuming repairs, which meant that by 20 June the Kriegsmarine had just one heavy cruiser, two light cruisers and a mere four destroyers ready for action. Britain was simply not going to be subdued with quite so small a naval force.
On one level, the Norwegian campaign had proved a great success – after all, it had achieved its main objective of creating naval bases and denying the Allies the chance to sever German iron supplies. However, the passage of such ore via Narvik still remained fraught with risk, and much of the Kriegsmarine's surface fleet – upon which it had based its prewar naval strategy – lay either at the bottom of the sea or in dockyards undergoing repairs that were using money and materials needed elsewhere. Luftwaffe losses amounted to 242 aircraft, which was also no small number.
It is hard not to agree with Warlimont that Hitler would have been better off knocking out France and the Low Countries first, in which case they would have been able to storm into Norway without much of a fight; Britain would have been in no position to contest it on land at all. And had the attack in the West failed, Norway would not have done them much good anyway.
When Hitler invaded Poland, and Britain and France declared war, the Führer was forced into a conflict that required absolute victory and nothing less. The run of victories had been impressive; to defeat France had been an astonishing achievement. But in the long run these victories would mean nothing if Germany did not defeat Britain too. And to do that, Britain's Air Force and Navy had to be defeated as well as its Army. How this was going to happen with a surface fleet that had been largely destroyed and just a handful of U-boats was something Hitler did not appear to have yet thought through.
CHAPTER 25
The End in France
IN EARLY JUNE 1940, Maggiore Publio Magini flew to Tripoli in Libya, where he was to collect a plane and fly back to Italy. Thirty years old and the son of a teacher from Livorno, he had been called up for military service in 1931 and had duly joined the Regia Aeronautica and trained as a pilot. He had been stationed in Rome, and these had been good times: he had met and married his wife, and had enjoyed both the flying and the camaraderie of his fellows. But two years later, with his statutory service over, he had left the Air Force and moved to Florence, finding work as a chemist.
The job was no compensation for the excitement of flying, however, and in any case he missed his Air Force friends, so he rejoined and was posted to Brindisi in the south, where he became something of an expert at both night flying and operating flying boats. By 1938, he had been given the job of setting up a special training school for bad-weather flying near Rome and was still based there on the eve of Italy's entry into the war.
Although most of his work was at the school, there were the occasional trips such as this one, and on reaching Tripoli he was invited to dinner by Maresciallo Italo Balbo, in the Libyan Governor's castle. Magini was delighted to accept but was surprised when the Marshal began speaking out quite openly about Mussolini's plans to enter the war, something he thought would be disastrous. 'He thought any war with Britain was a mad idea,' noted Magini. Balbo thought Mussolini showed a total lack of understanding of the world, and of the ties between Britain and America, and the United States' industrial might. 'I worried about what he had said for a long time,' added Magini.
A few days later, in Rome, on the evening of 10 June, Pace Misciatelli-Chigi, a young and beautiful Tuscan aristocrat, had gathered together a number of friends at her flat in the Piazza Venezia. At 6 p.m., they had been told, just across the way from them on the balcony of the Palazzo Venezia, Benito Mussolini would appear and announce his declaration of war. The speech would be broadcast all around the country, from speakers in piazzas in every town, but Pace Misciatelli-Chigi and her friends had a grandstand view of the live event.
That day was Pace's first wedding anniversary. There had been talk of war the previous June, but she put it out of mind – the sun had been shining, she was marrying the Marquese Flavio Misciatelli in the cathedral in Siena and her thoughts were on anything but politics. A year on, it was unavoidable. Her husband was not even with her that day – he had left to join his regiment, the Genoa Cavalry, leaving her with their baby daughter, Maria Aurora. With a restriction on lights in place already, she had embraced him in the dim light and watched him leave; she had been determined not to cry in front of him, but after he had gone, she worried her heart would break.
At 6 p.m., as promised, Il Duce appeared on the balcony. 'An hour appointed by destiny has struck in the heavens of our fatherland!' he told the Italian people. 'We go to battle against the plutocratic and reactionary democracies of the west who, at every moment, have hindered the advance and have often endangered the very existence of the Italian people.'
From her flat, Pace Misciatelli-Chigi looked down on the crowds below. There were a few Fascist rabble-rousers, but for the most part the people listened in silence. A gigantic struggle lay ahead, Mussolini told them, but he also assured the people they would win. 'People of Italy!' he ended with a flourish, 'Rush to arms and show your tenacity, your courage, your valour!'
Pace Misciatelli-Chigi watched the crowd slowly and quietly disperse and then spotted some Fascists carrying a German and an Italian war veteran, blind and with no hands. Suddenly overcome, she began crying and hurried to her room.
Later, she was awoken by the sound of air raid sirens wailing. 'I got up calmly,' she noted, 'but that sound made me shiver.' No enemy planes arrived, however, and after the all-clear sounded, she determined to pack there and then; the following day, she and her daughter would escape Rome and head back to Siena, just as she had promised her husband.
Millions heard Mussolini's declaration of war that evening. Hitler was appalled – not that Italy was now in the war, but by the manner of its announcement, which he thought vulgar. As far as the Führer was concerned, one didn't make a declaration of war, one just got on and fought it. For others, however, it made a powerful impression. Listening in the Piazza Maggiore in Bologna, for example, was Sergio Fabbri, a 22-year-old financial worker. 'The declaration of war filled my friend and me with joy,' he wrote. It was greeted with equal excitement by the seventeen-year-old William Cremonini, who was listening along with a large group of his friends in the very same place. 'We were full of enthusiasm,' he said, 'and in a jolly mood. Maybe some of the older people didn't see it that way, but we were all excited.'
Cremonini had been brought up in Bologna, one of Italy's largest and most industrialized cities, and had greatly enjoyed being part of the numerous Fascist youth organizations while growing up. As Hitler had done in Nazi Germany, so Mussolini had recognized that young minds could be easily manipulated and that by introducing militaristic organizations it would be possible to create new generations of young Italians who both bought into the Fascist ideal of honour and duty to the state and learned important lessons in obedience and discipline. Cremonini had joined the Children of the She-Wolf at five, then the Opera Nazionale Balilla, a Fascist youth organization, before progressing into the Balilla Musketeers, the Avanguardisti and finally the Giovani Fascisti, the Young Fascists. In other words, from the age of five, he had been steadily indoctrinated in Fascist ideology, not that he had realized it at the time. 'In those days,' he says, 'everything worked well, discipline was respected and one might say that we were better off despite being worse off.'
No sooner had Mussolini's declaration finished than recruiting began to sign up young men like Cremonini and his friends into the Giovani Fascisti battalions, even though there were nothing like enough uniforms, let alone rifles and weapons, to go around. Cremonini was unperturbed. Joining the Bologna Battalion, he was then sent off to begin his training in Liguria. His war had begun.
But for all the youthful excitement of boys like Cremonini, it was the reaction of Pace Misciatelli-Chigi that was more commonplace, as Ciano, for one, was well aware. 'The news of the war does not surprise anyone and does not arouse very much enthusiasm,' he wrote in his diary. 'I am sad, very sad. The adventure begins. May God help Italy.'
Despite the irrational fears of the British, Germany took the obvious course of action and prepared to finish the job in France before turning attention elsewhere. It was clearly not a matter of if France would capitulate, but when. Général Weygand had promised to fight on, and so had Reynaud, but the men on the ground knew their cause was a lost one. Trapped in the giant pincer, the cream of their armies had been annihilated; by 5 June, some 1.2 million French troops had been killed, wounded, or taken prisoner. After such a defeat there really was no way back, physically or psychologically.
The pause prompted by the German assault on Dunkirk had given Weygand a slight breathing space to reorganize his forces roughly east–west along the Somme and Aisne rivers, but he now had just sixty-four divisions and no reserves opposing 104 divisions flush with victory and brimful of confidence. Weygand's air forces were also in disarray, while in the skies the Luftwaffe continued to reign supreme.
Case RED, the German operation to conquer the rest of France, was launched on 5 June. Some regrouping had taken place, with Panzerkorps Hoth, for example, now attached to Armeegruppe B and part of the sweep south-west towards Le Havre and Normandy. Armeegruppe A, on the other hand, was to wheel south-east towards Switzerland and achieve another encirclement. The plan was to attack the Maginot Line around the back.
As it turned out, the French did put up far stiffer resistance and performed much better than they ever had in the first phase of the campaign. Nevertheless, the Germans overcame resistance swiftly enough, and among the first to break through the line was Generalmajor Rommel's 7. Panzerdivision. Once again, Hauptmann Hans von Luck's recce battalion was in the van, charging across country to avoid road congestion. He managed to take the Somme bridges intact, but then ran into the main French defences and immediately came under heavy fire. It was still early morning and von Luck and his men were taking cover from French artillery shelling when he heard one of his runners say, 'Captain, your breakfast.' Von Luck turned around. 'I couldn't believe my eyes,' he noted. One of his runners had crawled through enemy fire to deliver a tray of sandwiches and was even clutching a napkin.
'Man, are you mad? I'm hungry all right, but at the moment I have other things to do than eat breakfast.'
'Yes, I know,' the runner replied, 'but a hungry commander gets nervous. I feel responsible for your welfare.' Then he was off again, while those around von Luck collapsed with laughter.
Soon after, they broke through, the combination of artillery, armour and the Luftwaffe proving unstoppable. Von Luck and his men advanced around sixty miles in just two days. By the 7th, they were approaching Rouen, huge clouds of smoke guiding them from where the Luftwaffe had already called.
They were preparing to cross the Seine when they were ordered due west to Le Havre. Here they came up against one of the last British units, 51st Highland Division. This had been on rotation in the Maginot Line when the battle had begun and had been posted west when Case RED started. Rommel's men reached the coast on 10 June and cut the road to Le Havre, so, together with the remnants of the French IX Corps, 51st Highland Division was forced back to Saint-Valéry. An attempt was made to lift its men off but rain and fog hampered efforts, so that only a few more than 2,000 got away. The rest were forced to surrender.
Meanwhile, it was Hauptmann von Luck who took the surrender in nearby Fécamp, from where a smaller number of British and French had been trying to evacuate. He accepted the surrender of the mayor, ordered occupation of the southern hills, switched off the local radio station and sent out patrols. He then signalled to Rommel.
'Bravo, von Luck,' Rommel replied. For 7. Panzerdivision, the battle was over.
Paris was emptying. The American broadcast journalist Edward Sevareid had been told by his NBS bosses to leave the capital when the French Government left; now it had, so it was time for him to go too. He had already sent his wife and their baby twins back to the US, managing to get them on a train to Italy and then the last American ship to leave Genoa, which, he had correctly guessed, meant Italy was about join the fight.
A few days later, bombs had fallen on Paris, and specifically on the Citroën works and the Air Ministry. In the days that followed, Sevareid watched thousands of cars emerge from the garages and, with mattresses and luggage strapped to the roofs, head south.
On 10 June, dark smoke over the city obscured the sun, and he drove down the Champs-Élysées and looked at the empty cafés. Later that night, he made his last broadcast from the capital and then made his way south in his own black Citroën, along with endless miles of others. 'Paris lay inert,' he wrote, 'her breathing scarcely audible, her limbs relaxed, and the blood flowed remorselessly from her manifold veins. Paris was dying, like a beautiful woman in coma.'
On 12 June, a young Parisienne, Andrée Griotteray, arrived at police headquarters to find the courtyard full of trucks as all the archives were being taken and moved elsewhere. 'The latest news is the Germans are still advancing,' she jotted in her diary the following day. 'Bastards.' That day, the 13th, the Chief of Police, Monsieur Langeron, who had given Andrée her job in the first place, called all the administrative staff together and told them that if the city were to be occupied, the police and Head of Police would all stay and carry on with their jobs. Later, Andrée packed a suitcase just in case, although she had decided she must obey orders and stay and continue her job as requested. Her mother, brothers and sister, however, had already gone, having taken a train to Nantes. From there, they planned to go to England, where her mother had friends. 'All my friends have gone,' she wrote. 'We are alone and it is very scary.'
The same day that von Luck was taking the surrender in Fécamp and Eric Sevareid was heading south from Paris, a British delegation including Winston Churchill, Anthony Eden, General Dill, the Deputy CIGS and Edward Spears was flying to France for urgent talks with Reynaud and the French war leaders. The French Government had already left Paris – the meeting was to take place at Weygand's new HQ at Briare on the Loire.
Increasingly desperate calls for reinforcements had been coming from Reynaud. More fighter squadrons immediately, more divisions, more bombers. He had also been bombarding President Roosevelt, and on 10 June signalled again. 'I beg you,' he wrote, 'to state publicly that the United States will give the Allies all the moral and material support within their means, short of sending an expeditionary force.'
Most of Churchill's Cabinet and Chiefs of Staff were against sending France anything more, but the PM, as well as being a Francophile, was conscious of the need to be seen to be helping the French as much as possible. Resentment was growing on both sides: the French felt the Brits had cut and run, the Brits believed French incompetence had led to this disaster in the first place; Churchill believed gestures needed to be made, and that the longer the French were kept in the fight, the better Britain's position would be.
The talks achieved little. There was discussion about a 'Breton redoubt' in Brittany, an idea with which Reynaud was particularly taken. General Sir Alan Brooke had already landed back in France, at Cherbourg in Normandy, with a newly reconstituted BEF consisting of one division and two more to follow. It was a gesture and nothing more, yet Weygand was demanding more divisions to enter the fray immediately. They simply didn't exist. Churchill's biggest concern was the French Fleet and what would happen to it if the worst happened and France sued for terms. He was not given a clear answer until the following day, when he collared Amiral Darlan. The French admiral assured him the Fleet would never be handed over to Germany. The British contingent set off for home again early the following morning in bad weather and en route spotted a couple of German fighter planes; fortunately, the Germans did not see them.
When they had gone, Reynaud had a short talk with Pétain and Weygand. Under the terms of the alliance with Britain, one nation could not make terms with the enemy without the permission of the other, and Reynaud intended to honour that. Moreover, he believed they should fight to the last – that they could establish a redoubt in Brittany and that their sea and air forces could continue the fight alongside Britain. And if not Brittany, then North Africa. They should never surrender.
'The country will not forgive you,' Weygand replied, 'if, in order to remain faithful to Britain, you reject any possibility of peace.' Reynaud was horrified; it was not about Britain but continuing the fight and never surrendering to Nazi tyranny. That Weygand and Pétain believed servitude was preferable was anathema to him.
The following day, 12 June, the Council of Ministers met at Tours, to where the government had now moved. Général Weygand urged them to ask for an armistice. The arguments for and against raged with no conclusion, but Reynaud's authority, never strong, was being undermined by the two old warriors.
A request had been made by the Council of Ministers to see Churchill. Reynaud invited him back and he came, barely thirty-six hours after he had last left. They met at Tours, but, bizarrely, Reynaud spoke to Churchill without his colleagues. Furthermore, he admitted Weygand wanted to surrender but told Churchill he hoped he could dissuade the defeatists so long as the USA entered the war. This was a line that had not been put forward at the Council of Ministers the previous day; no such thing had been suggested. At any rate, it was the last time the two met.
Meanwhile, Eric Sevareid had finally reached Tours and found a bar full of British and American journalists who were sitting waiting for news and comparing notes. Suddenly, a small fat Jewish Parisian journalist burst into tears, bit his knuckles, then rapped them on the bar until they bled, crying, 'France is finished! France is finished!' As Sevareid was well aware, he also meant, 'I am finished.'
That same day, 13 June, Leutnant Siegfried Knappe and his gunners in 87. Division advanced thirty miles and by 3 p.m. were at the River Marne with the Eiffel Tower visible in the distance. As evening fell, they were ordered to take up new positions on the Ourcq Canal. Calling up their 105mm gun, they pushed it into position only to come under return fire immediately, and at that moment Knappe felt something strike his hand – a bullet had gone clean through. Blood was pumping from the wound, but he felt no pain – not then, at any rate. He later discovered another bullet hole through the side of his jacket and map case; he had been lucky, all things considered. Their 105 had done the job, however. Opposite them, resistance had ceased, and the following morning they were in Paris.
'A day I will remember for the rest of my life,' scribbled Andrée Griotteray in her diary, that Friday, 14 June. The first thing she had seen as she had walked up the rue Auber to catch the Métro was a truck full of German soldiers. It felt like a stab in the back. Then, at 10 a.m. sharp, Germans marched into the police headquarters through the gates of Notre-Dame. 'I looked out of my office window and there they were. When I left in the evening the yard was full of disarmed policemen and German soldiers,' she confided to her diary. 'But what a loss of face for France. What a tragedy. Paris occupied by a foreign power. I cried and cried and cried.'
Above the city that day was General Walter Warlimont, who had flown over in a small Fieseler Storch to observe the front from the air. He knew German troops were close to Paris but could clearly see large columns of infantry already there. Remembering how much they had striven to reach this goal in the last war, he felt overwhelmed by a sense of exultation and joy. On a whim, he tapped the pilot on the shoulder and asked him to land at the Place de la Concorde. After circling around for a short while, they landed at the end of the Champs-Élysées.
A couple of hours later, he was watching Leutnant Knappe's 87th Infantry marching past and saw a French girl push by to see the spectacle for herself. 'I for once forgot my gloomy feelings about the misery of the war,' he said, 'and, in particular, the sufferings connected between the French and our own people.'
That same day, 14 June, General Brooke reported it was time to evacuate the last British troops in France. He had spoken with Weygand and Général Georges and they told him plainly it was over. Churchill berated him, but Brooke was insistent. Eventually, the PM concurred. As a result, a further 200,000 troops were evacuated over the next few days, from Cherbourg, Brest and other ports. More than half a million men had been successfully brought back from France. Considering the small size of the British Army, this was a significant proportion.
Another of those arriving in Britain was the French Major-General Charles de Gaulle, one of the few men to have seen off the panzers during an armoured battle at Abbeville, but who was now a minister in Reynaud's reshuffled Cabinet. As such, he had attended the meeting of the Supreme War Council on 11 June and had made quite an impression, not least because of his physical appearance. At well over six foot, de Gaulle was tall, with a beaked nose, trim moustache and curiously very little chin. He was also clearly determined to fight on. Churchill even muttered to him, 'L'homme du destin.'
As German troops entered Paris, the French Government moved again, this time to Bordeaux and, once there, de Gaulle grilled Reynaud about the possibility of continuing the fight in North Africa. At this, Reynaud ordered him to fly to London to ask for British help in making such a move. In fact, there was no aeroplane available, so instead he hurried by car to see his dying mother in Brittany and then to say farewell to his wife and children. After giving them instructions should the worst come to the worst, he drove to Brest, boarded the destroyer Milan and set sail for Plymouth.
The following morning, 16 June, he was at the Hyde Park Hotel in London and was shaving when Jean Monnet, a French businessman, and Charles Corbin, the Ambassador to Britain, came in and suggested a scheme being discussed with the British to create a union between France and Britain – the two countries would become one. It was a plan with many flaws and born of desperation, but de Gaulle, who was due to have lunch with Churchill, agreed to propose it to the Prime Minister. They met at the Carlton Club, and realizing it was the only way to keep France and therefore the French Fleet in the war, Churchill offered to put the proposal to his Cabinet.
Suddenly, everyone became terribly excited, and a Declaration of Union was drafted. Jock Colville, who was snatching snippets of these developments, was astonished. 'The Cabinet meeting turned into a sort of promenade,' he noted, 'and everyone has been slapping de Gaulle on the back and telling him he shall be Commander-in-Chief (Winston muttering "je l'arrangerai"). Is he to be the new Napoleon?'
De Gaulle then telephoned Reynaud, who personally took down the Declaration of Union. 'He was transfigured with joy,' noted Edward Spears, who as Reynaud's British liaison officer was still with the French premier, 'and my old friendship for him surged out in a wave of appreciation at his response.' For Reynaud, this was a lifeline – a chance for France to stay in the war. The following day, he planned to meet Churchill again and discuss the matter in greater detail, but first, after Spears had hurried away to get copies of the Declaration typed up, he promised to put the Declaration to the Council of Ministers. 'It did not occur to us,' wrote Spears, 'that it might not be accepted.'
When he read it out, however, not one man spoke out in favour; rather, it was met with silence. Somehow, news of this offer of union had already reached them. 'It was clear,' wrote Reynaud, 'that Pétain and Weygand had won the day.' Reynaud became convinced that his phone lines had been tapped by Pétain and the defeatists, but Spears believed it came through another source: Reynaud's mistress, Madame de Portes, who was a known Anglophobe. Roland de Margerie, First Secretary at the French Embassy in London, had told Spears, 'She is ugly, dirty, nasty and half-demented.' No one, it seemed, had a good word to say about her, and why Reynaud was so under her spell was a mystery to all. Whatever the truth, the Council had been forewarned by someone.
At any rate, with that ice-cold response, this last-ditch attempt to keep France fighting was over. Reynaud resigned and a few hours later Maréchal Pétain was asked to form a new government. He made his first broadcast the following day, 18 June. Watching him in Bordeaux were Eric Sevareid and a host of other journalists who had somehow made the long journey south. Stepping carefully into the studio wearing a belted raincoat, he announced to the French people that the war was over and that troops should lay down their arms. He was, he told them, making a 'gift' of himself. Sevareid was not impressed. 'He seemed to regard it as a fair bargain for the nation,' he noted. 'Defeat, shame, and torture to be made palatable by his precious "gift" – a vain, doddering old man.' Pétain, the saviour of Verdun in the last war, revered by almost every living Frenchman, had an authority no other in France could match, yet his order to troops to lay down their arms when no armistice had yet been signed only added to the confusion.
'We learn by wireless that Pétain and Weygand have asked for an armistice,' jotted Capitaine Barlone in his diary. He had sailed from Plymouth back to France two weeks earlier, and had then gone on a wild goose chase with other officers and troops trying to catch up with the front. Barlone decided there and then to try and get back to England and continue the fight, and first ten, then twenty of his fellows agreed to join him. Most troops, however, starved of information and confused by what was happening, had no idea what they should now do. Many had not even seen a German at this point. In the next few days, a further million French troops became prisoners of war. Had they known they would be sent to German prison camps for the next five years, they might not have acquiesced quite so readily.
As it happened, the Germans had not been expecting Pétain's announcement either; Hitler was having talks with Mussolini, so the German armies pushed on, and with increasing ease. In the meantime, it was left to General Warlimont and his staff to try and draw up terms for the French.
These were eventually put to the French a few days later on 21 June, the same day that, across the Atlantic, René de Chambrun reached the White House. There he met Roosevelt, Harry Hopkins and others of the President's inner circle. He had come to plead for arms and US support, but it was, of course, all too late.
Back in France, Paul Reynaud had, in the meantime, managed to speak to Pétain and urged him to tell Amiral Darlan to sail the Fleet to the United States. Pétain refused, arguing that the Germans would not hesitate to carry out fierce reprisals if the Fleet either sailed away or was scuttled. None the less, Reynaud followed up this conversation with a letter suggesting that Pétain could explain such an action to the Germans as being Darlan's personal insubordination. The long-term benefit to France of helping the Allies, he argued, and gaining credit points with the Americans, could not be overestimated.
Pétain, however, was having none of it, and the terms of the armistice were unequivocal. The French Fleet would assemble in ports to be named later, and would be demobilized and disarmed under German or Italian supervision. 'The German Government solemnly declares to the French Government that it has no intention of using the units of this Fleet in its own operations of war.' As the Nazis had repeatedly shown, however, their promises counted for absolutely nothing, and with much of their own fleet now sunk or back in dockyards, the opportunity to absorb the world's fourth-largest Navy at a stroke was an obvious temptation. Why on earth wouldn't they? Pétain must have been all too aware of this.
In Paris, Andrée Griotteray felt sick at heart. She now saw Germans on the streets of her city every day. 'They walk around as if they own the place,' she wrote. 'They are continually to be found in our cafés and our bars, where they sing and dance.' Above, German planes buzzed and flew so low she was convinced they would hit a building. Through the streets, German officers could be seen speeding around in smart captured cars. She was disgusted beyond belief. Late on the 22nd she was at home, writing her diary and looking out of the window. 'It is pouring,' she noted. 'Thunder and lightning are raging all over Paris and I am depressed. Why must I feel so broken-hearted every time I walk past a German soldier?'
The armistice was signed that same day in the same railway carriage in Compiègne in which the Germans had signed their surrender back in 1918. For Hitler, who was there to observe France's humiliation, there could have been no sweeter moment of victory. He had told his disbelieving generals that Germany could destroy France and be masters of Europe, and so far he had been proved right. Next it would be Britain's turn.
CHAPTER 26
Air Power: I
ON 30 MAY, Siegfried Bethke had carried out his fiftieth combat sortie, and it had been over Dunkirk and Ostend, escorting Stukas as they had 'pelted' British ships evacuating troops. 'An eerie sight from the air,' he noted. 'Both places look like firebrands. Many small and large ships on the beach to pick up the English soldiers. Bombs, fires, anti-aircraft firing, Stukas, smoke and fumes.'
The following day, during an attack on some French LeO 45 bombers, he was hit by one of their machine-gunners and suffered the terrifying experience of flames licking into the cockpit and having to bale out. Already flying quite low, he knew he had to act quickly but initially struggled to get the canopy open. Desperately trying to work through the bail-out procedure in his head, he somehow managed to get the canopy open at last, flip over the plane and pull the ripcord on his parachute.
Looking down, he realized he was heading straight for a trench strewn with dead soldiers and a war memorial nearby from the last war. With the ground rushing up towards him, he then landed badly, knocking himself unconscious in the process. When he came to, he could see his 109, 'No. 7', burning on the ground and German infantry were pulling him to safety. Just 200 metres away, they told him, were black French colonial troops, who, fortunately for him, had made no effort to either shoot him or snatch him once he had landed.
When he was taken back to his airfield, the rest of the Staffel were gratifyingly pleased to see him alive, but despite only light burns to his hands and throbbing head, he was put aboard a Ju52 and packed off to hospital in Cologne. By 6 June, he had heard about the renewed offensive and was itching to get back to his squadron. 'I'm extremely ambitious,' he jotted in his journal. 'I want to be successful. Who knows how long this war will last? If I don't get the Knight's Cross, then at least the Iron Cross First Class.' He had, by that time, shot down four planes but felt certain he could have had more than double that if his marksmanship had been a bit better. 'It was my own ineptness and nervousness,' he scribbled. 'It was all my own fault.'
Also shot down had been Hajo Herrmann, who had been flying daily since the opening of the offensive. Over Dunkirk, he had been dropping his bombs one at a time in the hope of gaining greater accuracy – he would fly over, drop one, adjust, then repeat the process until he struck – and this had worked, with one ship definitely sunk as a result. It was, however, a risky business and on 31 May, now flying in a new Junkers 88 from Schiphol in Amsterdam, he had just dived on a ship, missed and was climbing for a second attempt when he was hit by a Hurricane and forced to crash-land in the sea, albeit close enough to the shore to be able to get himself and his crew safely out and quickly back on to land. Unsure which side he'd landed on, he was relieved to see German infantrymen approaching. 'I'd made it,' he wrote. It had been his fortieth operational flight, and that did not include the sorties he'd flown in Spain.
Helmut Mahlke had been hit over Dunkirk too. The smoke and cloud over Dunkirk had been so bad, he had chosen to lead his Staffel low, underneath the cloudbase – it was the only way they could hit their targets, despite their being sitting ducks for any flak. Suddenly, they had come under intense anti-aircraft fire and moments later there was a bang from behind.
'What's happened back there? Are you wounded Fritzchen?' he asked his rear gunner.
'No, but the control cables in the rear fuselage have been cut by flak.'
With his elevators cut, it was extremely difficult to control the Stuka. They headed south, and back towards the airfield at Calais Guise. Flying was just about possible, but landing would be a different matter and so he told his gunner, Fritz Baudisch, to bale out. Baudisch opted to stay, however.
After circling the airfield, Mahlke came into land with everything perfectly lined up, only to be shaken by a strong thermal gust at the last moment. The nose dropped like a stone and the Stuka crash-landed – the undercarriage was ripped off, and so was a wing, but moments later they came to a halt and were amazed to discover they were in one piece. As they jumped out and ran clear, the Stuka erupted into a mass of flames. 'We'd had the devil's own luck in getting out of it alive,' noted Mahlke.
They were flying again the next day and the days after that. On 1 June, Mahlke was harried by several Spitfires over Dunkirk and only just managed to evade them. On a second flight over Dunkirk that day, they managed to hit one ship only to be attacked by several Spitfires once more. Again, he got away by the skin of his teeth. Others were not so lucky.
In all, the Luftwaffe lost 1,814 aircraft during the Battle of France – around half the number with which it had begun the attack on 10 May – and the experiences of Bethke, Herrmann and Mahlke say much about the intensity of the fighting and how hard they and their fellow pilots were pushed. For those coming up against the Luftwaffe in May and June 1940, it seemed their mastery of the skies was complete, yet although the German Air Force was, without question, the finest in the world at that time, there can be no question that it was still fundamentally inefficient and complacent, and that its leadership had passed over opportunities that could have made it considerably better than it already was.
The problems were there at almost every level, but most obviously with the leadership. Feldmarschall Göring had been a fighter pilot and had even commanded the famed Richthofen squadron in 1918, but he had never been to staff college and had leapt up the Air Force ranks thanks to his position as Number 2 in the Nazi party. He knew little about military command, and not much about modern air warfare, and was, in fact, a far better businessman and politician than Air Force commander.
The trouble was, his junior commanders all knew this. The beating heart of the operational Luftwaffe was the young men, still in their twenties, who had joined the Luftwaffe in its early days in the mid-1930s, fought in Poland and France and had a mass of vital operational experience. These men were now squadron and group commanders and, of course, were able to pass on their knowledge to the younger pilots and aircrew. Hajo Herrmann was one such figure; another was Johannes 'Macky' Steinhoff, a Staffelkapitän in 4/JG2. Steinhoff was twenty-six, smart and a naturally gifted pilot. He had originally hoped to become a teacher, but coming from a working-class background had been forced to give up university for lack of funds and had joined the Kriegsmarine as a naval flier instead. From there he had transferred to the Luftwaffe in 1935 and had been at fighter school with many of the pilots already making a name for themselves, such as Adolf Galland, Werner Mölders and Johannes Trautloft. Much to his chagrin, Steinhoff had not gone to Spain, but he made a name for himself back in December 1939, when he and his comrades in 4/JG2 had intercepted a formation of Wellington bombers off Wilhelmshaven and shot down twelve of the twenty-two. Steinhoff had accounted for two of them.
Goebbels's propaganda machine made much of this, and Steinhoff and a few others had been ordered to Berlin and had met Goebbels, von Ribbentrop and Göring. Steinhoff had not been much impressed with any of them. 'I looked at these men,' said Steinhoff, 'and wondered how such weak-looking creatures could be running such a great country.' The C-in-C peppered them with questions about air combat, like an over-enthusiastic kid wanting to hear of adventures in the skies; he showed no gravitas, no grasp of strategy. 'I found him annoying, exhausting, and intrusive,' said Steinhoff. 'He loved to grab you, almost hug a man and slap your back. I found this uncomfortable.' Steinhoff and his friends called him the 'Fat One'. Steinhoff was not alone in his views; far from it – they were commonplace. That Göring attracted so little respect did not augur well.
Nor did Göring demonstrate much leadership of the Reichsluftfahrtministerium, or RLM, the Luftwaffe General Staff. Like Hitler, he pursued a policy of divide and rule, keeping rivals on parallel commands and ensuring there was discord among his subordinates. The one person who managed to successfully weave through this jungle, and also had a bucket-load of good sense, was General Walther Wever, the Luftwaffe Chief of Staff. It was Wever who had been planning an independent strategic bomber force. He had recognized, quite rightly, that the biggest threat to Germany lay in the East, and so creating a large heavy bomber force that would be the mainstay of the Reich's air defence was not only a sensible idea but one Göring concurred with at the time. Sadly for the Luftwaffe, however, Wever was killed in an air crash before his bomber force went into production.
In his place came firstly Albert Kesselring, a former artillery officer, then General Hans-Jürgen Stumpff, and finally Oberst Hans Jeschonnek, still in his thirties when he took on the job. One of the problems was that Jeschonnek did not get on with General Erhard Milch, formerly running the Lufthansa civil airline but from the birth of the Luftwaffe Göring's deputy. Milch had little military experience and was another who was promoted from almost nothing, but was an extremely able administrator and a man who was able to go straight to the nub of a problem and get things done. For Göring, however, Milch was just a little too competent, so he clipped his wings by bringing in Ernst Udet as Head of the Office of Air Armament in early 1939. Udet was a brilliant pilot and fighter ace, one of Göring's best pals and hugely gregarious; it was Udet who had encouraged the young Scotsman Eric Brown to fly back in 1936. He was, however, no businessman, knew little about procurement, and lacked the Machiavellian ruthlessness and deviousness required. Furthermore, although technically his post should have fallen under Milch's jurisdiction, he was made directly responsible to Göring. It was a terrible move, because Milch and Udet had actually always got on rather well, and under Milch's watchful and pragmatic guidance he might have overcome his shortcomings. Instead, mistrust grew between them, and Udet became increasingly insecure about his position and his judgement.
By May 1940, Wever's original four-engine bomber programme had long ago been kicked into touch. Instead, bombers would operate with fighters in an integrated Luftwaffe that would be made up with air fleets – Luftflotten – and air corps – Fliegerkorps – that were designed to directly support the land forces. There was no bomber force that could operate independently of the ground forces – no strategic bomber force.
The Luftwaffe had plenty of old mid-1930s bombers such as Heinkel 111s and Dornier 17s, but the focus of all new bombers had become dive-bombing. Udet had been seduced by dive-bombing when he had seen American Curtiss Helldivers during a visit to the USA a few years earlier. Out of this had come the Junkers 87, the Sturzkampfflugzeug, or 'Stuka'. The principle behind dive-bombing was sound enough: by dive-bombing, it was possible to get closer to the target, which meant greater accuracy, particularly since Germany did not possess an effective bombsight. The greater the accuracy, the less ordnance and aircraft required, and it was this, above all, that made the dive-bomber so attractive; Germany had neither the infrastructure nor raw materials required to build up a substantial heavy-bomber force.
During the Polish campaign, in Norway and again in France, the Stuka had repeatedly proved itself as a highly effective weapon, made all the better for the addition of a siren that screamed as it dived and quite intentionally put the fear of God into those on the receiving end. For Goebbels, it had become the most potent symbol of Nazi Germany's military might. Newsreels, complete with sound effects, were shown around the world with Stukas diving, screaming and devastating Germany's enemies with their shock and awe.
In truth, one type of dive-bomber was probably enough for one air force. Udet and Jeschonnek, however, did not agree, and so decided to give dive-bombing capabilities to their latest bomber, the twin-engine Junkers 88. This had been conceived as a high-speed, long-range medium bomber, and one of the early prototypes achieved records for flying two tons of bombs over 600 miles at an average speed of 310 mph. No other bomber in the world could carry so much so far so quickly. In short, it was a triumph. Also in the pipeline was a four-engine heavy bomber, the Heinkel 177, but both these aircraft suggested a more strategic role for the Luftwaffe, which was at odds with Jeschonnek's views on how best to use air power.
Both Udet and Jeschonnek decided that instead of developing the Ju88 and He177 as they had been originally conceived, it would be far better to give them dive-bombing capabilities. This prompted great teeth-sucking from Junkers and Heinkel and a staggering 25,000 changes to the original design of the Ju88. Production was delayed massively, which was why it was not until the spring of 1940 that Hajo Herrmann and the rest of KG4 were equipped with them. Most bombing units were still using the rather obsolete Heinkel 111s and Dornier 17s. And the Ju88 was no longer particularly fast or long-range. In fact, it now had a top speed of just 269 mph, which wasn't much better than the Heinkel and Dornier. As for the Heinkel 177, it was so behind schedule, it was not even yet in production.
The problem was that dive-bombers necessarily needed to be small, because of the weight and problems of gravitational pull. Heinkel were trying to solve the problem by putting two engines on top of each other and powering a single propeller in each wing. It wasn't working, and test pilots were dying unnecessarily as a result. There was a four-engine aircraft, the Focke-Wulf 200 'Condor', which was being earmarked for long-range reconnaissance and anti-shipping work, but this had originally been designed as a transport plane and not a heavy bomber. In any case, there were structural issues with it that had not been resolved, the payload was only around four tons, and Focke-Wulf was never able to build it in numbers – only twenty-eight, for example, were built during all of 1940.
Then there were the fighter planes. The Luftwaffe had two, both of which were designed by Professor Willi Messerschmitt at Bayerische Flugzeugwerke AG, which, in 1938, had been renamed Messerschmitt AG. The single-engine fighter, the Me109E, was the best fighter aircraft in the world in 1940, because it could climb faster than any other, packed a bigger punch than any other, with fifty-five seconds' worth of machine-gun fire and eighty rounds of 20mm cannon shells, and could dive quicker than its rivals. It was a little difficult to master and, because of the tremendous torque produced by the Daimler-Benz 601 engine, was easy to topple over when taking off unless the pilot was highly experienced. The only other flaw was the very limited visibility in the cockpit. In all other respects, however, it was unrivalled. Furthermore, because its undercarriage was attached to the fuselage it was quicker to both build and repair – the wings, for example, could be manufactured quite separately.
The second was the Messerschmitt 110, which was a twin-engine fighter and originally conceived as a long-range bomber escort. It was a particular favourite of Göring, and so no one dared tell him it had numerous deficiencies, not least a slow rate of climb and dive, and a lack of manoeuvrability, which meant that in a dogfight with a half-decent single-engine fighter it was likely to come out second best. So taken was he with the Me110 that he named it the 'Zerstörer' (Destroyer) and created special Zerstörer fighter wings, plucking many of the best fighter pilots from single-engine units to pilot them. And again, over Poland and in Norway, where they faced no modern opposition, the myth surrounding their potency only grew.
There was, however, another single-engine fighter that could have offered a more effective support act to the Me109E. This was the Heinkel 112, which had been put forward as a fighter plane at the same time as the 109 and had initially performed even better. The Luftwaffe had ordered further prototypes of both and by the time Messerschmitt had developed the 109E, Heinkel's 112E had speeds of more than 350 mph, was considered highly manoeuvrable, had a solid, inward-folding undercarriage and elliptical wings, and had an astonishing range of more than 715 miles, which was significantly better than that of the Me110. Its rate of climb was not quite as good as the Me109E's, but it could still reach 20,000 feet in ten minutes, which was as good as anything else out there. When Heinkel protested to Udet that his fighter should be given a contract, he was firmly told to drop the matter, which he did; after all, rumours of Jewish blood always dogged Heinkel, so it paid not to kick up too much of a fuss, and, in any case, Udet and Messerschmitt were particularly good friends as well as the professor being a good party man. None the less, that a plane as good and versatile as the Heinkel 112 was rejected, especially with its incredible range, was astonishing. Range would be critical in fighting over Britain. For the Luftwaffe, this was unfortunate because the failure to back the Heinkel meant a truly winning combination had been passed over.
Another cause for concern was the shortage of training schools. Following Munich, Hitler had realized that Britain, especially, was increasing the rearmament of its Air Force and told Göring he wanted a fivefold increase in the size of the Luftwaffe. This was only passed on to the rest of the air staff several months later and was never enacted, largely because they lacked the means to do so, and partly because Jeschonnek was also wedded to the concept of the quick war, in which everything would be thrown into a rapid and decisive battle. By June 1940, the training schools had been largely stripped of all the Ju52s, which were used for training purposes, and many of the instructors. Nor were there enough schools in the first place – there was just one for the training of fighter pilots.
Stripping the flying schools in this manner supported the principles of a rapid war in which everything was flung at the initial assault, and so did not matter at all – as long as the Luftwaffe was not embroiled in a long drawn-out war.
The trouble was, cracks were already appearing. The loss of so many aircraft on 10 May had set off warning bells, but it was the air battle over Dunkirk that had really got alarms ringing. Göring had promised Hitler his Luftwaffe would destroy the BEF and prevent a mass evacuation. Listening to the telephone conversation was Göring's personal Luftwaffe intelligence officer, Oberst 'Beppo' Schmid. 'He described this mission as being a speciality of the Luftwaffe,' said Schmid, 'and pointed out that the advance elements of the German Army, already battle weary, could hardly expect to succeed in preventing the British withdrawal.' This showed a spectacular lack of understanding of what was happening on the ground by both Göring and Hitler, who after the successes so far in the war had become seduced by the invincibility of the Luftwaffe.
Yet, over Dunkirk, Göring had been unable to keep his promise. Dive-bombing was all very well with almost complete command of the sky and on fixed targets, but was not so effective when attempting to hit a moving target from skies swarming with enemy fighter planes. Ships did not keep still and, in any case, even from a couple of thousand feet often looked like little more than pencils; it was one of the reasons why so many men escaped. What's more, as the dive-bomber emerged out of its dive, it was flying so slowly it became a sitting target for any enemy fighter plane waiting, hawk-like, to strike from above. Not only had the Luftwaffe failed to stop the British escaping, but its bomber force, and particularly its Stukas and new Ju88s, had suffered grievously.
A technological disconnect was also evident. Back in December, when Macky Steinhoff and JG2 had intercepted RAF Wellingtons, they had been directed to the bombers by highly sophisticated Kriegsmarine radar. Despite this, radar was not used in such a way in any Luftwaffe operations. And while against the French 1st Armoured Division it had been radio that had enabled the Germans to control the battle, once airborne, Luftwaffe aircraft were largely on their own; they could communicate with other planes in their Staffel, but that was as far as it went. There were no ground controllers guiding them to targets, there was no communication with bomber units or other fighter units. It was curious that these technologies, in which Germany was so advanced and which had so clearly already proved their worth, had not been integrated into the air arm.
Now, however, with France out of the way, Göring's Luftwaffe, so unstoppable thus far, would have to operate across the Channel, on its own and in a way in which it was neither trained nor prepared, and defeat the RAF.
If Göring and his commanders were worried, however, they did not show it. Rather, their intelligence picture suggested that the RAF had been badly weakened by recent fighting and that knocking them out of the sky should be a walk in the park. Göring assured Hitler it would take just four days to clear the British skies of the RAF.
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