WEDNESDAY, 27 JANUARY 1943. Speeding along the quiet country Chiltern back roads at just after 8.30 in the morning was a black two-seater Bentley sports saloon, with a lighted sign on the front that said 'Priority'. Despite the speed with which the Bentley was travelling, there was no especial reason for its driver to be making such haste, but that was how Air Marshal Sir Arthur Harris liked to drive, whether it was him at the wheel – which it often was – or his chauffeur, Maddocks. He enjoyed driving and at a furious pace, and the Bentley, especially when handled skilfully, was happy to oblige.
The route from Springfields, the C-in-C's house, to Bomber Command Headquarters was just a shade over four miles, so that at 8.35 a.m., just a few minutes after leaving his wife and young daughter at home, Harris was tearing through the village of Walter's Ash, and moments later, turning into the main entrance of RAF High Wycombe and then accelerating once more, along the road towards his office at No. 1 Site, various staff officers and WAAFs hurriedly moving off the road and out of the way of the speeding black beast.
No. 1 Site consisted of a number of buildings, purpose-built in the 1930s and completed by 1940, when it became Bomber Command HQ, and it was outside one of these, a three-storey building of little charm but considerable functionality, that the Bentley finally came to a halt. Stepping out, Harris passed into the Air Staff Block, and straight to his office, which was on the ground floor, along with those of his other senior staff. Waiting for him was his personal secretary, Assistant Section Officer Peggy Wherry, a WAAF known to be almost as formidable as her boss. Handed a folder of the night's most important signals, he then pulled out a cigarette, quickly read through them, then, just before nine, stepped out of the office again and back to his Bentley for the daily conference.
This was held in the deep underground bunker that was the Headquarters Operations Room. It was only a few hundred yards away, but Harris always drove. He hated walking anywhere. As a young man in Rhodesia, he had fought with the 1st Rhodesian Regiment against the Germans in South-West Africa and during the campaign had marched some 500 miles across the Kalahari Desert in pursuit of the enemy. Poorly equipped, and poorly fed and watered, they had all struggled with extreme fatigue and even hallucinations, and it was then that the 23-year-old private vowed to never again walk a single step if he could get any form of vehicle to carry him. It was one of the reasons he had headed back to England and joined the Royal Flying Corps once the campaign was over.
At home, 'Bert' Harris would be witty and jocular, talkative, tender towards his wife and daughter, and a considerate host to the many hundreds of luminaries and VIPs that made their way to Springfields. The life and soul, in fact. At the office, however, he could not have been more different. He had a bull of a face – square, with piercing pale eyes and light, greying, gingery hair and a trim moustache, and the kind of immediate presence that pullulated with authority. At the office, he might allow himself an occasional smirk, but he was altogether more serious, more austere. A man who never played for popularity, who suffered no fools and wasted none of his valuable time on unnecessary words or civilities.
By the time he had walked down the long steps into the 'Hole', as the Ops Room was known, he expected all those who were to attend the daily conference to be there. He had no truck whatsoever with those who were late. Rarely did he raise his voice; he did not need to. A terse comment or even a stony glare was enough to show his displeasure.
The Ops Room was rectangular with an ops board on the facing wall, and a large map covering the far end wall, and all overlooked by a viewing gallery above. At this morning's 'High Mass', however, a chair and desk had been placed in the centre of the room, around which stood the C-in-C's senior staff. There was a pronounced hush as he entered the room, took off his cap, sat down, and took out and lit another of his American cigarettes. Next to him stood the ruddy-faced and moustachioed Air Vice-Marshal Robert 'Sandy' Saundby, his Senior Air Staff Officer (SASO), as well as his deputy, the Air Commodore Ops, the Deputy SASO, his naval and army liaison officers, his Intelligence Officer, Senior Engineer Staff Officer and Armament Officer, and, last, but by no means least, Dr Magnus Spence, his Chief Meteorological Officer.
'Did the Hun do anything last night?' he asked.
The Intelligence Officer briskly told him then handed him a list of priority targets, most of which had come from the Air Ministry in London, staff officers of lower rank than Harris, and whom he instinctively disliked; he did not think it was their role to try and tell him his job, however indirectly.
Harris studied the list, then, after conferring with Saundby, announced that the night's raid would be directed at Düsseldorf. He then turned to Dr Spence. This particular conversation was always a critical part of the conference. Mounting a raid required no small amount of investment in terms of fuel, bombs, aircraft, and, of course, men's lives. It was imperative that as far as possible every operation should have the greatest possible chance of success, and Harris always grilled Spence deeply; the C-in-C reckoned he had a good nose for weather. Even so, he always deferred to Spence's final word on the matter, although on this occasion it was straightforward enough: the weather looked promising, Spence told him. He forecast clear skies over the target. Harris was satisfied with that.
Next came the allocation of aircraft. It looked as though there would be under 200 available, of which only 120 or so would be Lancasters. Crews were not expected to fly two nights in a row, and 157 bombers had been sent to attack the U-boat pens at Lorient on the French Atlantic coast the previous evening. Nor was Bomber Command, in January 1943, a large force. Harris had just over 500 aircraft of all types, of which little more than 300 were 'heavies' – that is, four-engine bombers such as the Lancaster, Stirling and Halifax. In fact, he could call on fewer than a hundred more aircraft than he had had when he had taken over as Commander-in-Chief of Bomber Command just under a year before. Of the three RAF home commands – Fighter, Coastal and Bomber – it was Bomber Command that remained the smallest, even though Harris's bomber force remained the primary weapon of attack against Hitler's Germany.
Almost a year in office and yet Harris still could not launch his all-out bombing offensive against Hitler's war machine. Expansion had been painfully slow. It was all very frustrating and largely due to factors beyond his control. Not only was Bomber Command a small force, but he had been obliged to use what crews and aircraft he did have for a number of other purposes besides the strategic bombing of the Third Reich. The biggest threat to Britain had been seen to be that posed by the U-boats in the Battle of the Atlantic, but in the first half of 1942 further resources had been sucked up by the escalating and worsening war against Japan in the Far East and then, in June, by the near-annihilation of the Eighth Army in North Africa, the only place where Britain was actively engaging German troops on land. Not only were bombers needed in the Mediterranean and Middle East, but Harris was expected to repeatedly attack U-boat pens, and to use vast amounts of his meagre forces laying sea-mines.
In addition to the diversion of resources, there were also issues of training crews and rebuilding morale after the mauling the Command had received in the first years of the war, while the failure of the Manchester bomber had also hugely delayed expansion. Much of the Command's hopes in 1941 had rested on this twin-engine bomber designed by Roy Chadwick at A. V. Roe, but the engines had proved under-powered and completely unsuitable for the airframe. The Lancaster, powered by four Rolls-Royce Merlin engines, had been developed out of the failure of the Manchester, but this all took time, as did the production of increasing numbers of the four-engine wonder-bomber that Harris believed the Lancaster was; in this new bomber, he at last had an aircraft that would be able to carry not just a handful of lightweight incendiaries, but really big bombs – bombs weighing as much as 10,000lb, possibly even bigger than that. Bombs that could cause really large amounts of destruction.
Nor had Harris had enough airfields, or even airfields that could handle four-engine heavies – stations which were needed not only for the operational squadrons but for the Heavy Conversion Units where crews were trained to operate these bigger bombers. Back in October 1941, the Air Ministry had accepted that airfields needed to be built with runways adequate for heavy bombers, but not until more than a year later was this policy actually implemented, by which time many of them had to be given over to the American bomber units which were starting to arrive in England. No one was grumbling at the arrival of the Americans, least of all Harris, but this still had consequences for the speed of expansion of Bomber Command.
Yet perhaps the biggest stumbling block of all was the lack of effective navigational aids. A device codenamed GEE had been tested over Germany in 1941 and had started being fitted into aircraft by early 1942. This was a radar pulse system that enabled a navigator on board an aircraft to fix his position by measuring the distance of pulses from three different ground stations in England. It was hoped that this would allow accurate navigation to targets, especially in the Ruhr industrial heartland in western Germany. GEE had helped, but in practice it had proved nothing like as accurate as the scientists had hoped, its range was short – the Ruhr was about the limit of its reach – and it was certainly not good enough to aid blind flying. This meant that Harris's bombers were still dependent on clear skies and preferably a decent moon, which in turn made the bombers an easier target for the German flak guns and night fighters. Furthermore, by the summer, the enemy had already worked out how to effectively jam GEE.
But, at last, two potentially exciting new radar devices had been developed – devices which, it was hoped, would finally allow Harris's crews to navigate both blind and accurately to the target. The first was codenamed 'Oboe'. This relied on a radio signal pulse repeater in the aircraft linked to two ground stations back in the UK. In other words, it was in effect a development of GEE. It still had limited range and could only cope with the signals from no more than six aircraft per hour, but tests had repeatedly proved its accuracy and it was also seemingly impervious to enemy jamming.
There were neither enough sets nor the capacity for Oboe to be used with an entire bomber force, but it could be employed with Harris's small numbers of Mosquitoes. These were very fast, lightweight twin-engine aircraft and part of Harris's Pathfinder Force, or PFF as it was known. The idea was that the Mosquitoes, using Oboe, would fly ahead of the main bomber stream, then over the target lay down ground markers, flares that would burst in a cascade just above the ground, and far more accurate than the parachute flares that had originally been used by the PFF Mosquitoes. These would then show the bombers following in their wake where to drop their bombs.
And that night's raid against Düsseldorf was to be the first time PFF Mosquitoes would be using Oboe. It was, as Harris was well aware, potentially a major step forward.
Satisfied that the bomb loads and time over target had been agreed, Harris stood up without a further word, replaced his cap and left. Details of routes and squadron allocations were for Saundby and his other senior staff officers to sort out; Harris's job was to lead, to provide direction, not trouble himself with the kind of details that could be perfectly well handled by others.
Harris drove back towards his office. Back in 1940, when he had been Deputy Chief of the Air Staff, he had been watching the Blitz one evening from the roof of the Air Ministry with Air Marshal Sir Charles Portal, then only newly appointed Chief of the Air Staff. Bombs were falling and London was burning and aglow with flames. 'Well,' Harris said, turning to Portal, 'they are sowing the wind.' A year and a half later, he was commander of Bomber Command and the man given the task of leading the strategic bombing campaign against Germany. The decision to carry out area bombing of German cities was not his – that had been made higher up the chain of command, and was one that Portal, as Chief of the Air Staff, was perhaps the biggest proponent. Yet Harris was an unwavering bomber advocate. He believed, quite zealously, that the best way to win the war was by destroying German cities. Destroy the cities, he believed, and Germany's capacity to produce war materiel would be destroyed as well. With no war materiel, Hitler would no longer be able to continue the war. Such a policy would cost the lives of many aircrew, but the losses would be nothing compared to the great slaughter of men lost in another drawn-out land war like that of a generation earlier – a war in which Harris fought. Whether such a bombing campaign would break the morale of the German people on whom these bombs would inevitably fall was, to his mind, neither here nor there. 'It was not necessary,' he noted, 'to take these possibilities into account; bombing, there was every reason to suppose, would cripple the enemy's war industries if it was carried out for long enough and with sufficient weight.'
It was the 'sufficient weight' that was the crux of the matter. For all the damage the Germans had caused during the Blitz, it had not been carried out with sufficient weight – Coventry and one or two other raids being the exceptions. The Luftwaffe had only had twin-engine bombers, capable of carrying no more than comparatively light payloads of bombs. A Dornier 17, for example, one of the mainstays of the Luftwaffe bombing fleet, could carry just 2,205lb of bombs; the Heinkel 111 could manage just over 4,000lb. In sharp contrast, the current Lancasters could manage 14,000lb. Nor had the Germans had anything like enough aircraft. They had invented the Blitz, Harris reckoned, without ever appreciating its strategic possibilities. And as for morale – in Britain, this had improved with the Blitz; the German bombing campaign had helped forge a unity of purpose among the British people and a determination to fight on, to never surrender. It might be possible to break the morale of a people, but only when cities lay totally devastated.
No, it was perfectly clear to Harris. The best way to win the war was to divert as many resources as possible into the strategic bombing campaign. To build more and more heavy bombers, with bigger and more destructive bombs, and to wipe as many cities as possible from the face of the earth.
The advent of Oboe was an important step forward, and in a few days' time a further blind navigation aid would be used on an operation too: H2S, which was effectively the first ever ground-mapping radar. The 'echo map' created by the radar pulse returns on board the aircraft was crude, and target identification required considerable skill, but it was not limited by range and had the potential to be accurate up to just a little over a mile. It was known as 'Home Sweet Home', a nickname which suggested the high hopes held for it. These two tools, at long last, would give his bombers the chance to bomb with the kind of accuracy that had simply not been possible before.
The past eleven months had been a time of rebuilding and retraining, of experimentation. But now, after nearly a year in the job, Harris believed his bomber force was almost ready to start the strategic bombing campaign in earnest. What was important was to maintain that resolve and not be diverted from the task and method of achieving that aim. Singleness of purpose; that was the key. And that meant lots of heavy bombers dropping lots of bombs on German cities. As far as Harris was concerned, it was as simple as that.
Some 150 miles north, in the largely flat Lincolnshire countryside, the crews of 97 Squadron were readying themselves for another day. The airfield was still only a year old, built as a satellite of the much larger RAF Coningsby a few miles down the road, and although it lay to the south of the little spa town, on specially cleared open ground in the middle of nowhere, for the officers RAF Woodhall Spa had one very big advantage: the mock-Tudor Edwardian mansion, Petwood House, which had been requisitioned the previous year and now served as the Officers' Mess. Not only was the house itself extremely comfortable, but it had extensive grounds complete with croquet pitches, tennis courts and a swimming pool.
It was partly for this reason that the 23-year-old Pilot Officer Les Munro found he had little cause to venture out to the surrounding towns of Boston and even Lincoln whenever he was not flying. The son of a sheep station shepherd from Gisborne, on the north-east corner of New Zealand's North Island, Munro tended to spend his time when not flying or on ops at Petwood, socializing in the Mess or playing cripette and shove ha'penny and swimming in the grounds. He reckoned it was a pretty good place to relax in between the intensity of flying combat operations over the Third Reich. In any case, he did not have a car, wasn't a great one for drinking endless pints of beer, and, in the cold of winter, it made sense to him to stay put as far as possible.
By ten o'clock, he and the other officers in the squadron had breakfasted and had taken a ride down through Woodhall and south to the airfield. Munro reported into the Flight hut with Pilot Officer Jock Rumbles, his navigator and the only other officer in his crew, where the news had already arrived that they would be flying that night, and to Düsseldorf. Take-off was due to begin at 1800 hours.
Munro had joined the squadron back in December. He was a tall, broad-shouldered man, quiet and thoughtful, but his face was always ready to crease into a big smile. His father hailed from Scotland, from the woollen mills of Glasgow, but at the turn of the century had contracted TB and emigrated to New Zealand, and in due course was employed as a shepherd on Marshlands sheep station, some sixteen miles from Gisborne. There he had met and married Munro's mother. Marsham Station was a pretty remote spot, although it had a pub, a small school and a general store, but the Munros were a further five miles away from there, so that the young Les had a ten-mile round trip to school. At home, there were no neighbours, so he and his younger brother and sister had to make their own fun. Money was scarce and the children were all expected to help about the place. It was a hard – and isolated – life.
Later, money was so short he had to give up high school, and at sixteen left to work on a dairy farm. Two years on, by the time war broke out, he was working on a mixed sheep and cropping farm not far from Gisborne, and from there he used to see the commercial aeroplanes fly over fairly regularly. By April 1940, when he turned twenty-one, his younger brother, Ian, had already joined the army, but Les decided by then that he wanted to become a pilot. Unfortunately, his truncated schooling meant that he did not have the right qualifications. He was told he could be aircrew instead. 'But I had my mind set on being a pilot,' he says. Showing the kind of determination that would stand him in good stead later, he immediately took a correspondence course, got his mathematics up to scratch, and was then finally accepted for pilot training.
Unusually, Munro volunteered to be a bomber pilot, rather than a fighter pilot as was the preference of most – it appealed more to his conservative nature, and it was to Canada that he was now sent to complete his pilot's training. When he left on 20 October 1941, it was the first time he had left the North Island's shores. The United States, Canada and Britain – the mother country – were different worlds. He saw the film star Alexis Smith in Los Angeles, flew over the snowy wilds of Saskatoon, then finally crossed the Atlantic to Liverpool on the Cape Town Castle in early March 1942, with his wings on his tunic and a commission to boot.
After a brief stay at the transit base in Bournemouth, Munro had been posted to No. 29 Operational Training Unit in North Luffenham, in Rutland, and it was there that he gained his first crew. Pilots and crew had all assembled in a large room at the station and been told to sort themselves out. It was an ad hoc method, but generally tended to work. It certainly did for Munro, who immediately teamed up with his navigator, Jock Rumbles, a Scot who had emigrated to South Africa before the war, but had returned and joined the Royal Air Force, and his mid-upper gunner, Bill Howarth. Finding the wireless operator and bombaimer took a bit more time, but soon enough there was the full crew of five, and so began the job of converting onto the Vickers Wellington twin-engine bomber.
The Wellington had come into service in September 1939, and since then had been a mainstay of Britain's bomber force. Although the Wellington had been designed by Vickers Aviation's Chief Designer, R. K. Pierson, its entire structure was a spiralling metal geodetic design, that had been invented by Vickers' Assistant Chief Designer, Barnes Wallis. The problem with the geodetic design was that it was used only by Vickers, which caused problems with outsourcing production, and it was time-consuming to build too; however, the advantages were enormous. The metal lattice gave the structure immense strength and enabled it to take incredible levels of punishment without the airframe collapsing. Moreover, it was a lightweight design for the size of aircraft, which gave it a load and range-to-power ratio that was superior to those of other similar-sized machines. Certainly, Les Munro thought it was a decent enough aircraft, good to fly, and strong too, as he was soon to discover.
Back at the end of May, Air Marshal Harris had launched the first ever 'thousand-bomber raid' against Cologne. Although Bomber Command had been only 400 aircraft strong at the time, by scouring the Operational Training Units (OTUs) and other commands, and by using a number of, frankly, completely obsolete aircraft, they had managed to reach the magic figure of a thousand bombers. It was a high-risk coup de théâtre, but one that was seized upon – as Harris had hoped – by the media and which was broadly a great success: heavy damage had been inflicted on an important target and it seemed the German high command had also been gratifyingly horrified. Harris had not only given his Command a tremendous boost, but had done much to convince the sceptics that Bomber Command really could, after all, pose a serious threat to Germany's war machine. Two more raids followed – neither quite reaching the magic one-thousand mark but close enough – and although the results were mixed, Harris had been determined to continue periodically launching large-scale raids, not least in an effort to keep Bomber Command's image high within the media and hence the population as a whole.
So it was that on the night of 10 September 1942, some 479 aircraft were assembled for a large raid on Düsseldorf, and among those drawn in to take part were Les Munro and his crew from 29 OTU. Without feeling too nervous, Munro and his crew had taken off, successfully reached Düsseldorf, dropped their bombs and headed home, their first operational sortie successfully completed. They had been fortunate: of the thirteen OTU crews from Upper Heyford, five had been lost. Crews at OTU were not yet with operational squadrons because they had not finished their training. It was no wonder, then, that their casualties were higher than most. Just two nights later, however, on 13 September, Munro and his crew had been called on again to join 445 other aircraft on a raid on Bremen on the north German coast. Another risk for the trainee crews was that their aircraft tended to be ex-operational machines that were no longer really in good enough condition to be carrying out ops. For the Bremen raid, Munro had been allocated an old Wellington that he believed was too old and too unsound to fly with a heavy bomb load. Yet despite expressing concern, he was told to take the Wellington and like it.
Doing as he had been ordered, Munro duly took off, but despite having the throttles wide open, he simply couldn't get the Wellington to climb more than about thirty feet. 'I struggled and struggled,' he says, 'but I just couldn't gain height in it.'
Cursing to himself, he cleared the runway only to hear the bomb-aimer call out, 'Trees ahead!' At one moment it looked as though they would plunge straight into them, but instead they just clipped the tops as they passed, then lost height and, with his undercarriage already retracted, Munro felt the plane come to a halt. It wasn't, he had to admit, the gentlest of landings, but fortunately Wallis's geodetic design held the aircraft together and none of the crew was injured. However, in moments the Wellington was on fire, and Munro and the rest of the crew were scrambling clear and running to safety before the first of the 500lb bombs on board exploded. Just ahead of them, Munro now saw, had been a heavy brick wall and farm buildings. They had avoided ploughing into them by a whisker.
The following day, Munro was told to take another Wellington up and to fly over the crash site, but, in truth, he was not dwelling on his harrowing brush with death the day before. 'We just got on with things,' he says.
Now, over four months later, he was preparing to fly to Düsseldorf again, not in a Wellington, but in a bigger, four-engine Lancaster and with a seven-not five-man crew. His first op with 97 Squadron had been on 2 January – a mine-laying operation off the Gironde – and now he was about to take part in his eighth. Thirty finished missions constituted a completed tour, so he and his crew still had some way to go. Experience, of course, was hugely important, but bomber pilots and their crews needed more than that. They needed to be the right kind of character. They needed to have a kind of phlegmatism and imperturbability, and iron determination. Les Munro had all those.
In the afternoon he and the crew carried out a night-flying test in the squadron's R-Roger. The gunners checked the guns and the hydraulics of the turrets, the wireless operator, Sergeant Pigeon, his radio sets, while Munro made sure the aircraft was performing correctly. All seemed as it should. Later in the afternoon came the briefing. All pilots, wireless operators, navigators and bomb-aimers in the briefing room. A large map, photos of the target. Details of what times they should be over the target and the news that they would be preceded by Oboe-carrying Mosquitoes. Further details: the bombing course, a briefing from the Met Officer, warnings about new flak positions, and then, at the end, a 'Good luck'. The scraping back of chairs and then up the road to the Mess and the operational meal: bacon and real eggs, a mug of tea.
It was dark now. The truck then took them down to the airfield again, where Munro and Rumbles met the rest of the crew and were taken out to their aircraft, but during the run-up of the engines prior to take-off it became clear that there was something not right – a problem with one of them – so they were hastily transferred to another Lanc, this time X-X-Ray. And they would be flying her without having done a night-flying test.
Four hours and fifty minutes later, Munro touched X-X-Ray back down again. There had been a thin sheet of cloud over the target, and had it not been for Oboe and the new target indicators, the raid would almost certainly have been a failure. His bombaimer had dropped his 8,000lb bomb from 22,500 feet – more than four miles high – and had been satisfied they had delivered it on target. Certainly the 124 Lancasters and thirty-three four-engine Halifaxes appeared to have done well. Ten industrial businesses were destroyed, and twenty-one lightly damaged; nine public buildings were destroyed or seriously damaged; 456 houses were destroyed, and a further 2,400 lightly damaged. The city's opera house was flattened. Sixty-six people were killed and 225 wounded, and twenty-three of the dead were soldiers, killed on a train when it was hit at the main railway station by high-explosive bombs. Oboe, the first of Harris's new tools, was working.
The next day, Thursday, 28 January 1943. At around 12.30 p.m., in a darkened room in Vickers House, the London headquarters of Vickers-Armstrong, the armaments manufacturers, a group of about ten men – some wearing civilian suits, others the blue uniform of the RAF – sat in silence as a film projector whirred into life. After a brief moment of spotted and streaked blank film, some grainy monochrome footage of the bomb bay of a Wellington bomber appeared on the wall in front of them, and then, moments later, a large 46-inch-diameter ball was fitted onto specially adapted apparatus in the bay. In slow-motion footage, this ball was then released.
Brief commentary was being given by one of those there: a tall, big-featured man in his fifties, with thick, white hair. The film then switched to a scene over water, along the Fleet, the lagoon behind Chesil Beach in Dorset. Moments later, a Wellington, flying low, hove into view and dropped one of these spheres into the water, only for the steel casing around it to break on impact. A second run was shown; the result was the same.
Now, the white-haired man explained, the Wellington would drop a similar-looking sphere, although this time the ball was wooden and without the steel casing. The film then showed three further runs, the Wellington releasing the ball at around 290 mph at varying heights between forty and seventy feet above the water.
And on these three occasions, they saw the spheres, visibly spinning, hit the water, then bounce, still propelled forward, then hit the water and bounce again. And again. And again, so that by the time they finally came to rest, they had travelled between 1,100 and 1,200 yards.
What they had witnessed was a new weapon – a bomb that could bounce and skim across the surface of water for up to two-thirds of a mile, an astonishing distance. A bomb that could be released at distance from a target and, theoretically, then skip over any protective torpedo net in its way. And getting past torpedo nets suddenly opened up two very important targets that had hitherto been seen as too difficult to strike. These were the German capital ships lying in the Norwegian fjords, and the German dams, huge feats of engineering that were not only iconic structures within Germany, but, more importantly, provided the lifeblood of the Third Reich's industrial heartland.
2 A Method of Attacking the Axis Powers
THE TALL, WHITE-HAIRED man providing the commentary was the Assistant Chief Designer at Vickers Aviation and the inventor of the geodetic aircraft design, Barnes Wallis. His primary task at Vickers was to work alongside Rex Pierson, long since the company's principal aircraft designer. It was Pierson who had designed the Vimy heavy bomber in 1917, and although the geodetic construction was Wallis's brainchild, Pierson had been responsible for the design of first the Wellesley bomber and then the Wellington.
Their current project and number one priority was a new four-engine heavy bomber design, with the Air Ministry specification B.3/42, but which had already been given the name 'Windsor' by the team at Vickers. Pierson and Wallis had been working towards a heavy bomber for some time and had tendered for the B.12/36 contract back in 1936, which had eventually been won by Short Brothers' Stirling. They had tried again three years later, and again in 1941, before finally winning the B.3/42 contract towards the end of 1942. The Windsor was to be based on Wallis's geodetic lattice design, would be capable of high-altitude flight of some 30,000 feet and speeds in excess of 300 mph, would be armed with six 20mm cannon – as opposed to .303 Browning machine guns – and be able to carry a massive 15-ton bomb load. This would make it the most powerful heavy bomber in the RAF, something of which all those at Vickers – and indeed the Ministry of Aircraft Production – were keenly aware. In other words, there was no small amount of pressure to press on with the design and have the Windsor in production just as soon as was humanly possible.
Yet Wallis had always been a deep thinker and a particularly inventive engineer. Unlike Rex Pierson, who devoted all his undoubted talents to aircraft design, Wallis had for some time spent much thought and energy in developing non-conventional means of forcing Germany out of the war. Despite the day-to-day pressures of his work at Vickers, he was, in fact, well placed to do so. Although number two to Pierson, he was a distinguished engineer who had made his name designing airships, most notably the giant R.100. The age of airships had passed, but as Assistant Chief Designer, rather than Chief Designer, he was given a fair degree of latitude: he had earned the high regard of his peers, yet at Vickers the buck stopped with Pierson. So long as Wallis fulfilled his aircraft design duties, Sir Charles Craven, the Chairman of Vickers, was willing to allow Wallis time working on other, more experimental projects. His cause had been further helped when, during the Blitz, the design offices at Vickers' Weybridge headquarters were evacuated a few miles east to the Burhill Golf Club, which had been requisitioned by the Ministry of Aircraft Production. While the drawing team – and there were some fifty draughtsmen to help him and Pierson – were set up in the adjacent squash courts, Wallis was given a grand room on the first floor of the Club House, a former Georgian country mansion. There, surrounded by lush fairways and wooded parkland, he was a world away from the beady eyes of the Air Ministry and Ministry of Aircraft Production, and, for that matter, even Sir Charles Craven and the Vickers Board.
Thus, between his official commitments for Vickers, he had been able to spend the best part of the war researching and developing his ideas for new potentially war-ending weapons, whether during long office hours at Burhill or in his attic office at his family home in Effingham, a few miles away, or by working alongside scientists and other engineers at the Ministry of Aircraft Production research laboratories. It still meant a punishing workload.
Now, at the end of January 1943, it seemed as though all that time and effort, the endless setbacks and all the frustrations that had gone with them, were finally about to bear fruit. The short film he had shown of his proposed weapon and the four trials that had been conducted on the Dorset coast proved the bouncing bomb was no longer merely theory, a blueprint only on a draughtsman's board. It was real. And it could work.
Yet although he had proved its feasibility as a weapon, he was fully aware that the hardest hurdle of all had yet to be jumped: convincing the decision makers to put it into action. His plan was to use two different versions of the weapon. The first, which since the beginning of the year had been codenamed 'Highball', would be a smaller bomb, twenty-eight inches wide, that could be dropped by Mosquitoes and be used by RAF Coastal Command working alongside the Admiralty as an anti-shipping weapon. The great German battleships the Bismarck and Scharnhorst might have already been sunk, and the Gneisenau put out of action, but the biggest of all, the Tirpitz, still skulked untouched in the Norwegian fjords. Equally, Highball could be used in the Far East, against the Japanese Imperial Navy, or against hydro-electric power stations situated, like the German capital ships, in the Norwegian fjords. The opportunities were considerable.
The second version was considerably larger than the one used during the trials, at some sixty-one inches wide, and had been code-named 'Upkeep'. This bomb, Wallis hoped, would be used for an attack on the German and Italian dams. Low-flying aircraft would swoop in over the Möhne and Tirso dams, for example, and at the right height and speed would drop a rotating bomb, which would then bounce across the water, over the torpedo net, hit the dam wall, sink beneath the surface and then explode, and in the process cause a seismic breach in the dam wall, through which the millions of cubic tons of water behind would flow, wreaking havoc and destruction and denying the enemy the use of the reservoir, which held vast amounts of 'white coal' (water), an essential ingredient in the industrial processes that supported the German and Italian war machines. However convinced Wallis may have been about the potential of Upkeep and the feasibility of such an attack, there were two massive obstacles to overcome. The first was that RAF Bomber Command operated at night, and usually at bombing heights of more than 18,000 feet, yet Upkeep could only work if dropped at the kind of low level last seen during the Augsburg Raid the previous April – a raid that had proved that, even with special training and the most assiduous planning, the aircraft involved would be lucky to reach their destination. Also, the kind of accuracy that would be needed so that Upkeep skipped over the torpedo nets and hit the dam wall in precisely the right spot was, frankly, the stuff of dreams. Current bomb crews were doing well if they got within a mile of the target, but Wallis was expecting his Upkeep to be dropped on a sixpence.
The second major obstacle was time. For the best chance of a breach, the dams needed to be full, and that was in May and early June. If the attack was not made this year, it would have to wait until 1944 until it could be attempted again. Since Wallis's intention was to hasten the end of the war, a twelve-month delay rather defeated the whole point of the exercise. But it was now almost February. Even Wallis, ever the optimist, knew that to carry out such an attack would not only require specially trained crews, but specially adapted Lancaster bombers, and he still hadn't even drawn up the plans for this bigger version of the spherical bomb – a bomb that had to be larger than the trial version in order to hold the amount of explosives calculated to cause a breach in the dam.
It was a tall order, to say the very least, and now, as Air Marshal Sir Arthur Harris was finally about to launch his all-out bombing offensive against the Third Reich, Wallis was expecting him to agree to a diversion of resources on an operation that was, at best, fraught with risk. Not only was the raid itself a very tall order, but so would be convincing the top brass that it was worth their backing.
At least, though, he now had his film – and on that few minutes of celluloid a visual demonstration of the weapon's essential feasibility. Furthermore, he had his own unshakeable faith in the weapon's potential, and had become a fine salesman of his own ideas, which, allied to a healthy dose of optimism, and the tenacity of a terrier, had helped him win over a number of important supporters and get the project as far as it had come already.
In January 1943, Wallis was fifty-two, and in many ways had a rather donnish appearance. His thick and rapidly whitening hair was never slickly brilliantined as was the case with so many men, and seemed to rise off his head with an obvious lack of vanity. He never wore a hat, so the thickness of the hair was more evident somehow. He often wore spectacles, and from his big frame his suits, more country than city, seemed to hang rather than suggest any hint of urbane tailoring. His features were gentle, and his manner affable.
Yet although first impressions may have suggested he was the archetypal absent-minded professor, nothing could have been further from the truth. Wallis had a brain that was both highly organized and pragmatic. He was a brilliant mathematician and draughtsman, and something of a perfectionist – a man who could remember figures and details with extraordinary precision. He also possessed steely resolve and determination; after all, this was a man who never went to university, who learned many of his skills through experience and huge amounts of dedicated hard work, and who later completed a degree, in his spare time, in three months. Learned and widely read, through his combination of talent, brains, hard graft and determination he had become one of Britain's best-regarded aircraft designers.
The genesis of this new weapon was to be found at the beginning of the war, as Wallis had applied his mind to a way in which Germany might be brought down swiftly without the appalling slaughter that had been such a feature of the last world conflict. Wallis, a devout Christian, was also a strong patriot. He was as well a man who liked to solve problems, and no matter what he turned his mind to – whether it be helping build a new sports field for his village in Surrey, or new aircraft designs – he never gave less than his all.
Moreover, Wallis was also extremely resourceful, and spent much time firing off letters of enquiry to various experts, specialist firms or friends in the know. In September 1940, for example, he had written to Glenfield & Kennedy Ltd of Kilmarnock, asking for technical details about control gates on hydro-electric dams. A couple of months later, he was contacting Brewer & Son, patents agents in Chancery Lane, asking for information about the Möhne Dam. He also wrote to a firm called High Duty Alloys, of Slough. If he did not know the answer to something, he searched until he did.
His highly practical mind recognized the importance of contacts, too, and he worked hard to maintain them. Among the many he had made before and since the beginning of the war, few had been of greater help than Group Captain Fred Winterbotham, Head of Air Intelligence at MI6, which was why he was among the first to see Wallis's film. Winterbotham, perhaps more than any other, had followed the extraordinary story of this new weapon from the very beginning and, despite being in the Secret Intelligence Service, had consistently proved to be one of Wallis's greatest champions.
Charming, clever and well-travelled, Winterbotham had by the age of forty-five, as he now was, already led an extraordinary life. A soldier turned pilot in the First World War, he had returned home from France and taken a law degree at Oxford, but realizing he did not have the patience for office work turned to farming, trying his hand in Rhodesia and Kenya. At the end of the twenties, he came back from Africa and was soon recruited into air intelligence in the RAF, and spent much of his time before the war as a spy in Germany, meeting most of the senior Luftwaffe commanders from Erhard Milch to Albert Kesselring and even Göring and Hitler. The intelligence he managed to gather proved invaluable, as did his pioneering development of high-level aerial espionage.
Tall, urbane and excellent company, Winterbotham made it his business to keep up to speed with all the latest scientific and intelligence developments, whether it be code-breaking, new radar systems or potential new weapons. Like Wallis, he understood the importance of networking and was fabulously well connected. He also used his knowledge, connections and great charm to make sure he knew or had the ear of almost everyone in the corridors of British power, be it the Air Ministry or the Prime Minister's office.
The two men had met in early 1940, thanks to a mutual friend, Leo D'Erlanger. A highly successful city banker, D'Erlanger was fascinated by aeronautics and had for some time been a friend of Wallis's, and had made a striking impression on the latter's four children by once bringing them a pink gramophone. On 23 February in that first year of the war, he had come for lunch at the Wallis house in Effingham and this time brought with him a friend, Fred Winterbotham. D'Erlanger hoped the two might have much in common and that the one might be a useful contact for the other.
So it proved. Welcomed into the Wallis family home, Winterbotham was immediately charmed by both Wallis and his wife, Molly, and by the rush of their children about the place and endless clamour and sound of the piano and other musical instruments. More than that, he was intrigued by Wallis's idea and, soon after, invited him to lunch at the RAF Club in Piccadilly. There, Wallis talked about the efficiency of the anti-submarine depth charge that detonated under water. It was not the blast that did the damage, Wallis explained, so much as the shock wave that was transmitted by the water itself. No one appeared to have thought of it, but since the beginning of the war Wallis had been spending much of his spare time learning about bombs and the physics of high explosives, and now reckoned the same principle might be applied to a weapon detonating underground.
He had also been learning about the winding shafts of German collieries and the construction of different types of dams. All this research led him to one basic premise: that the key to ending the war was to take out Germany's power source. If its coal mines, oil depots, hydro-electric stations and water supplies – or 'white coal' – could be destroyed, then there would be no war industry. With no war industry, Germany would no longer be able to wage war.
Like Air Marshal Harris, Wallis passionately believed that air power could bring about the end of the war. But whereas Portal and Harris and other advocates of bombing believed the only way to destroy the enemy's industry was to attack the factories and cities, Wallis thought that approach was fatally flawed, because even in the Ruhr factories and industrial plants were spread out. Wallis's premise was sound enough, but the nub was how to achieve something simply beyond the limitations of current technology and weaponry.
Wallis, however, reckoned it was achievable. What he had been working on back in 1940 was the development of a deep-penetration bomb with a big enough explosive charge to create a miniature earthquake. Such a bomb would be huge and would need an equally huge bomber to carry it, but both he and Pierson had been working on a six-engine aircraft since before the outbreak of war. If such an aircraft and such a bomb could be built, then it would be possible, Wallis believed, to drop this weapon on German coal seams, dams, oil depots and other power sources. And destroy them.
After this first lunch in the RAF Club, Wallis and Winterbotham began to meet regularly and became increasingly good friends, so much so that Wallis soon permitted Winterbotham to call him by his Christian name, a singular honour bestowed only on those closest to him. Wallis, on the other hand, never called Winterbotham 'Fred the Victorian in him preferred surnames as a means of address.
Because of Winterbotham's position in MI6, he was already aware that scientists in both Germany and the United States were beginning to develop ideas for big bombs and believed that some time in the future these would become reality. Yet he was also won over by Wallis's rational thought processes and powers of persuasion, and therefore promised to provide him with intelligence data gathered from Germany, which he duly did. At the same time, Wallis recruited various scholars, friends and relations to scour through German textbooks, called on fellow members of the Institute of Civil Engineers, and procured information about explosives from the Ordnance Board. There were enquiries, too, to the English Steel Corporation and other specialist firms. As Wallis's research progressed, so Winterbotham became convinced that such a deep-penetration bomb was sounding increasingly plausible and that if there was a chance of it working, then it was worth developing without delay. The problem was that Wallis's reputation as an aeronautical engineer would only count for so much; somehow he needed to get his theories heard by people of influence and for them to rise above the many half-baked schemes that were endlessly being proposed – and ignored.
This was where Winterbotham could help. He had a friend working at the Prime Minister's Office who promised to put Wallis's proposals to Professor Lindemann, the Prime Minister's Chief Scientific Advisor.
The response, in early July 1940, was lukewarm, and it was suggested that Wallis should approach Boeing or some other American firm for support. Wallis was infuriated. 'In those very early days,' noted Winterbotham, 'Barnes could not envisage the possibility of anybody not falling in with his ideas at once.' Yet Winterbotham urged him to continue his work, encouraging him to put his thoughts together in a full and reasoned paper that could then be circulated.
Working tirelessly over the course of the following year, Wallis eventually produced, in March 1941, A Note on a Method of Attacking the Axis Powers, which he then distributed widely to his contacts in the world of aviation and at the Air Ministry and Ministry of Air Production.
'If strength rests in dispersal,' Wallis argued, 'concentration is weakness.' Man could choose where to place his factories and power stations, but natural resources, such as coal seams, could not be dispersed. 'If their destruction or paralysis can be accomplished,' he asserted, 'THEY OFFER A MEANS OF RENDERING THE ENEMY UTTERLY INCAPABLE OF CONTINUING TO PROSECUTE THE WAR.' He provided a natty illustration to make the point: a diamond shape, with power stations, oil refineries, gas works and hydro-electric power at the narrow end, then widening into 'dispersed industrial processes', tapering again to 'war effort', and finally, at the other narrow point, 'ability to wage war'.
It was, of course, the dispersed industrial processes that Portal and Harris were attacking and now intended to obliterate with the American Air Force's assistance and once Bomber Command had expanded sufficiently. Thanks to the help of Winterbotham and others, however, and armed with all kinds of detail and statistics, Wallis now knew considerably more about Germany's natural resources, and where and how they might be attacked. And with this information he had also greatly developed his ideas for his deep-penetration earthquake bomb.
His calculations led him to assert that a ten-ton bomb, designed with a sharp pointed nose and shaped rather like one of his airships, and dropped from 40,000 feet, could plunge some 135 feet into the ground. The subsequent explosion would cause a miniature and concentrated earthquake, which could provide precisely the levels of destruction that would be needed to destroy any underground oil storage depot, coal mine or, even, a massive dam such as the Möhne that fed water into the Ruhr Valley. A ten-ton bomb of this design, he claimed, would create a lethal area of destruction of twenty-nine acres. He accepted that gaining that kind of accuracy was difficult, but he argued that some 4,000 acres could be completely destroyed by sweeps of five aircraft each carrying a ten-ton bomb. In other words, vast fleets of bombers would no longer be needed. Just a handful, delivering these lethal weapons, could cause the kind of widespread devastation to Germany's power sources that could never be achieved by a mass of bombers carrying conventional bombs.
He also provided a solution for how to deliver this massive bomb from such heights: the six-engine Victory bomber. Rex Pierson had, before the war, put forward a design for such a bomber with a massive 235-foot wing span – the Lancaster's was 102 feet – and capable of carrying twenty tons of bombs, which had been based on Wallis's ideas. This had initially been rejected – after all, the RAF hadn't even got any four-engine bombers in service at that time – but Wallis, typically, refused to give up the idea and, as it happened, while working on the Note had received a certain amount of encouragement for his Victory bomber from none other than Lord Beaverbrook himself, the Canadian press baron, who was not only a great friend of the Prime Minister's but had, back in May 1940, been made Minister of Aircraft Production.
This had been thanks, once again, to Winterbotham, who had urged Beaverbrook to see Wallis back in July 1940. However, at the subsequent meeting, Beaverbrook surprised Wallis by asking him to go to America to study the work they were doing on pressurized cabins. Wallis pointed out that he already knew about such matters and that his time could be better spent staying in England.
'What would you do in England for us?' Beaverbrook asked him.
'Build you a monster bomber to smash the Germans,' Wallis replied.
Wallis explained his ideas. The latest version of the Victory bomber would have a wingspan of 160 feet, have a pressurized cabin, and be capable of flying at 40,000 feet.
Beaverbrook had been intrigued and asked him to provide fuller details, which Wallis gave him the following day. This, however, was July 1940, with the Luftwaffe already attacking Britain and, it seemed, a German invasion possible any day. One of the first orders Beaverbrook had issued when he took over as Minister of Aircraft Production back in May was that, from that moment on, only five types of aircraft should be manufactured – three types of bomber and two fighters. This dictum, however necessary in the immediate crisis, was already affecting future plans for four-engine bombers, so Wallis's plans for a six-engine beast that could only carry one very specialized bomb were never going to get immediate and full backing. Nonetheless, Beaverbrook did promise co-operation from the Ministry of Aircraft Production as Wallis worked on his plans, which included the help of their scientists at the Road Research Laboratory. This was a sprawling complex of offices, wind tunnels, water tanks and open-air experimentation sites in Harmondsworth in west London, that had been first opened in 1930 by the Ministry of Transport for doing exactly what its name suggested: researching better road-building techniques. Now, however, it was almost entirely turned over to use by the Ministry of Aircraft Production.
Britain's air power was overseen by not just one ministry, but two, and involved a vast number of different offices. Head of it all was the Minister for Air, Sir Archibald Sinclair, who although he had served in the last war was now a civilian and a member of the War Cabinet. Alongside him was Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Portal, Chief of the Air Staff and the RAF's most senior officer. Under the overall direction of the Air Ministry, there were the three home Commands – Bomber, Coastal and Fighter – and then the various overseas Commands, not least Middle East, whose headquarters were in Cairo.
Separate, but obviously working alongside the Air Ministry, was the Ministry of Aircraft Production, known as the MAP. This ministry did what its name described, but also invested much time and resources into research and into helping companies such as Vickers, Avro (or A. V. Roe, as the company was more formally known), Supermarine et al. to develop new aircraft and weapons. Overseeing all research and development at the MAP was Air Vice-Marshal Francis Linnell, the Controller of Research and Development, known as CRD. Under him were two directorates – Scientific Research and Technical Development. The Director of Scientific Research (DSR) was Dr David Pye, a civilian and a man of no small amount of influence, and his deputy, Benjamin Lockspeiser, was another key figure in the chain.
Operating under the eye of Pye and Lockspeiser was the Road Research Laboratory, led by another civilian, Dr W. H. Glanville, and his deputy, Dr A. H. Davis, and in October 1940, as Wallis was working on his ideas for a deep-penetration bomb and high-altitude bomber, they instructed A. R. Collins, Scientific Officer in the 'Concrete Section', to carry out tests to examine the possibility of destroying the Möhne Dam, one of the largest in Germany and whose reservoir fed water into the Ruhr and had, since before the war, been seen as a key target. These men in the MAP, whether scientists, servicemen or former businessmen, not only helped develop new aircraft, weapons and technology, but also acted as a kind of filter who could apply their understanding of current strategies with expertise. Barnes Wallis was not the only man in England independently trying to develop new weapons and technologies, and a great deal of the proposals that were sent into the MAP and Air Ministry were little more than fantasy. Even someone like Wallis, well-connected and a senior designer at Vickers, could not be expected to know the kind of issues and constraints that affected so much decision making when it came to the development of new weapons or aircraft.
However, Beaverbrook and others did clearly think that Wallis's ideas were worth pursuing, albeit tentatively. In August 1940, he had gained the help of the Aeronautical Research Committee, and had been allowed to use the wind tunnel at the National Physical Laboratory at Teddington for tests on his proposed deep-penetration bomb. A few months later, Wallis also met with Glanville, Davis and Collins at the Road Research Lab to explain the progress of his own research. While there, he told them that among the power source targets he had been considering were the two largest dams in Germany, the Möhne and Eder, and the Tirso in northern Italy. He gave Collins a copy of a German book that contained all the dimensions of the Möhne.
Not only did Collins and his team of four begin explosives tests against models of dams, but other scientists at the Road Research Lab also carried out experiments on Wallis's behalf on the effect of shock waves on underwater structures. With regular visits and correspondence, Wallis was able to draw on these tests and research for his Note, and yet he could not help feeling frustrated. Time was marching on. 'As a result of the continued opposition that we have met,' he wrote to Air Marshal Tedder, an early supporter at the MAP but now about to be posted to the Middle East, 'it has been necessary to resort to these laborious and long winded experiments in order to prove that what I suggested last July can in reality be done.' That had been at the end of November 1940, but despite Wallis's impatience, people were taking notice, not just at the MAP but at the Ministry of Home Security too, which had secured a 'real live dam' in the Elan Valley in Wales for conducting further experiments. At the beginning of January, R. E. Stirling of the Research and Experiments Department wrote to Sir Henry Tizard, Chief Scientific Advisor to the MAP and one of the most respected scientists in the country. 'Will you back me in this,' wrote Stirling about the purchase of the dam, 'by sending a letter expressing the interest of MAP and stressing the importance from your side?'
Then in February, Dr David Pye, the DSR at the MAP, formed an ad hoc group of four civilian scientists and one air commodore called the Aerial Attack on Dams Advisory Committee, or AAD for short. This had been prompted by discussions with Wallis and by the experiments being carried out by Collins et al. at the Road Research Lab.
Furthermore, by March, Wallis had finally produced the detailed and reasoned paper that Fred Winterbotham had urged him to write. And Winterbotham thought it quite brilliant. Wallis ran off some hundred copies, which were sent to Professor Lindemann, various people at the Air Ministry and at the MAP, even to certain journalists; four copies were also sent to America. Winterbotham once again did all he could to place copies in the hands of the right people. Wallis had also begun talking to Wing Commander Sidney Bufton, then Deputy Director of Bomber Operations at the Air Ministry, and had sparked enough interest for him to visit Wallis at Burhill, where he was promptly given a copy of the Note.
Much as Winterbotham had expected, however, the response from the Air Ministry was once again cautious. The problem was the difficulty of fulfilling current commitments – not least the development of new navigational aids and the four-engine bomber – without undertaking any project, especially one of such magnitude and one that, despite very convincing reasoning, relied on the kind of bombing accuracy that was massively beyond what most in the RAF considered possible. Professor Lindemann, on the other hand, believed that no such aircraft or bomb that size could be built in time to be used in the war.
Meanwhile, on 11 April, Dr Pye convened a meeting with the AAD Advisory Committee members and also Sir Henry Tizard, who had been given a copy of the Note by Winterbotham. The reason for the meeting was specifically to discuss the feasibility of Wallis's suggestions. They concluded – tentatively – that his calculations seemed sound enough, but their immediate stumbling block was how to detonate a bomb of some fifteen feet in length in such a way that the whole length of the bomb exploded at the same moment – a feature that was necessary in order to achieve a shock wave of the intensity required.
On 21 May, Wallis heard, via a letter from Sir Henry Tizard, that both the deep penetration bomb and the Victory bomber had been officially rejected by the Air Staff. Wallis was distraught. No matter what others said about timings, costs or the problems of diverting from existing projects, he was so convinced about the rightness of his ideas, he could not see why they should not be fully endorsed immediately and take priority over all other projects. This was not arrogance. It was because he passionately wanted the war to end as quickly as possible and believed he had the ideas to achieve that.
This, then, was Wallis's nadir, and yet despite his despair, the Note had gained him widespread attention within the corridors of power. The Big Bomb and the Victory bomber may have been rejected for now, but from these plans new lines of thinking were being developed. Wallis was not a lone voice; there were others still trying to develop some of his principles – and particularly his suggestion of attacking the enemy dams. The Note had sown some seeds, and from these plans another weapon would be developed.
Less than two years later, he would be able to show people more than a few drawings and some calculations. He would be able to show film footage of the bomb itself.
3 Bouncing Bomb
BOMBER COMMAND HAD drawn young men from all around the world: New Zealanders like Munro, South Africans, Australians and lots of Canadians. But not too many Americans. There were one or two, however, men such as Don Curtin of 106 Squadron and Joe McCarthy of 97.
McCarthy was twenty-two, 6 feet 3 inches tall and 16 stone, which made clambering into the Lancaster and along its fuselage and over the spars no easy matter, but once in the pilot's seat in the cockpit he was comfortable enough. With big, broad shoulders and blond hair, McCarthy was something of a giant.
Brought up in the Bronx in New York City, a second-generation Irishman, McCarthy had joined with Don Curtin, his great friend from back home. Both were competitive swimmers and had been lifeguards on Long Island. Both men had also begun learning to fly and had been well on their way to getting their flying licences. But with money tight and with a growing suspicion that the US would soon enough get itself into the war anyway, it had seemed like a good idea to cross over into Canada and join the RCAF. That way, they could learn to fly and get paid to do so. In any case, both men loved flying, loved the thought of adventure and liked the idea of getting to see something of the world. The danger – the sense that they might not get through it – never really entered their minds too much.
A little over a year later, both McCarthy and Curtin were among those whisked out of their OTUs to take part in the raid on Düsseldorf. For Curtin, this was certainly a baptism of fire. On the route out, his Hampden was attacked by a German night fighter. Somehow, he managed to evade his attacker, and despite the damage to his aircraft flew on to the target, dropped his bombs and headed for home, only to be attacked by a further enemy night fighter. Again, Curtin managed to get them away, but not before three of his crew were wounded.
For McCarthy, the trip was altogether less anxious, and soon after they were finally separated and sent to their respective squadrons, Curtin, with a DFC to his name already, to 106 Squadron under Wing Commander Guy Gibson, and McCarthy to 97, where he had quickly made an impression. It wasn't only the British who tended to conduct themselves with an understated reserve – it was part of the culture throughout Bomber Command, no matter what your nationality, but that wasn't McCarthy's way. He liked being the life and soul and using the kind of colourful language that any young man growing up in the Bronx would use. One attribute he did share with Munro, however, was his imperturbability. He might be loud and outspoken in the Mess, but at the controls of his Lancaster he was as quietly determined and unflappable as any.
He was certainly well liked by his bomb-aimer, an altogether more diminutive Englishman, George Johnson, known to all, inevitably, as 'Johnny'. His background could not have been more different. Born in a small village in Lincolnshire, he had been raised on a farm, largely by his father and five much older siblings; his mother had died when he was young. The relationship with his father had always been difficult. 'He and I seldom talked,' says Johnny, 'and I had more good hidings than good dinners.' He managed to largely escape home when, aged eleven, he was offered a scholarship to the Lord Wandsworth Agricultural College in Hampshire, an establishment set up for agricultural children who had lost one parent or more. He thrived at the school, captaining the cricket and football teams and showing a particular aptitude for sciences. After gaining his matriculation, he sat a Royal Horticultural Society exam, passed, and was pursuing a career as a park keeper when war was declared. By the following summer, he realized he wanted to be part of it – rather than sitting on the sidelines – so joined the Air Force.
He was sent overseas for training, first to Florida, then Alabama in the United States, and initially to be a pilot. America – or at least, the US Army Air Corps – did not make a great impression on him, however. He had detested initial training and his American instructors. 'Stupid discipline,' he says, 'and stupid marching. I didn't take to it at all.' And despite making a solo landing, he did not make the pilots' course either. Johnson didn't blame the instructors for that. 'I didn't have the aptitude or the inclination,' he says; it had never been a burning passion, not even as a boy. But he was beginning to feel he was wasting time, and so opted to retrain as an air gunner instead, knowing it was the shortest aircrew training course. That meant returning to England. After a very cold Christmas in New Brunswick, he was shipped back across the Atlantic, completed his training and in March 1942 was posted straight to 97 Squadron, bypassing his OTU, and instead becoming a supernumerary air gunner. He missed the Augsburg Raid, but flew a number of ops before the opportunity arose to retrain again on a local bomb-aimer's course.
He joined a crew that was nearing the end of its tour together and on their last flight found themselves flying in terrible weather. On the return trip, the weather turned for the worse and, having dropped down to 10,000 feet and taken their oxygen masks off, they were suddenly struck by a bolt of lightning. Johnson was completely blinded by the flash, and his first thought was that he must already be dead. But then his wits began to return and, with them, his sight, and the Lancaster was screaming in a plunging dive, everything was shaking, and the Perspex in the bomb-aimer's nose compartment was burned brown.
Eventually, the pilot managed to level out at 2,000 feet and they safely made their way home. 'They were all very edgy,' says Johnson, 'because it was their last flight.'
But not Johnson's. However, an American had joined the squadron, and he needed a bomb-aimer, so Johnson was transferred to McCarthy's crew. 'I thought, oh Christ, a bloody American!' he says. 'Yet from the first time we met, we just gelled. He was big in size and big in personality and he was big in pilot ability.' Johnson quickly learned to trust him and vice versa. 'It was subconscious faith in Joe,' says Johnny, 'that convinced me we were always going to come back.'
Inevitably, though, they had had their fair share of close calls. On the night of 17 January, they had flown the long trip to Berlin – it was the second trip there in a row by Bomber Command – and over the city, where the flak was always intense, they were hit and lost their inner port engine. The Lancaster still flew, but it made flying physically very demanding for the pilot. McCarthy turned for home, but on the way back they were hit again and lost the second port engine, so were now flying on just the two starboard engines. By trimming the aircraft and reducing the throttle, it was still possible to keep the machine airborne, but it was even harder to fly, and because it was travelling more slowly the trip was even longer. The physical strain on McCarthy was immense.
As they crossed the coast, it was clear they were not going to make Woodhall, so McCarthy called 'Mayday' and they were picked up by Tangmere, in Kent, a sector airfield in Fighter Command. Worrying that they might crash on the runway and so block it for any other possible aircraft coming in, he told the crew to get into the crash positions and then landed on the grass away from the runway.
'We landed OK,' says Johnson, who as bomb-aimer at the front of the aircraft had a bird's-eye view as they had come in to land. The stricken Lancaster stayed at Tangmere until they'd repaired it. 'A crew eventually came down to pick us up,' adds Johnny. 'They said, "What are you doing here?"' The whole crew had been posted missing.
They were flying ops again a week later; it would have been sooner had it not been for two trips cancelled because of bad weather. If a crew was fit and able, they flew, no matter what. It was relentless. Absolutely relentless.
On Tuesday, 2 February 1943, four days after the first showing of his film reel, Wallis held another screening, this time for Professor Lindemann, now Lord Cherwell. Two days earlier, on 30 January, he had sent Churchill's scientific advisor a copy of his latest paper, Air Attack on Dams, and Cherwell had responded quickly, welcoming the chance to see Wallis's film footage of the Chesil Beach trials. The man who had shown such dismissive scepticism at the publication of Wallis's Note on a Method of Attacking the Axis Powers was, at long last, showing some interest.
The decision by the Air Ministry to drop both the deep-penetration bomb and the Victory bomber had been nearly two years before, but back then, in May 1941, Wallis had not given up his ideas. Tizard had encouraged him to continue his work on the ten-ton bomb, and then in June 1941 he had attended the second meeting of the AAD committee. Beforehand, Wallis had managed to speak privately with Dr Pye and persuaded him to continue supporting further experiments on how the German and Italian dams might be destroyed.
Tests had continued throughout the autumn of 1941, with underwater charges detonated in various strengths and sizes and at varying distances from the face of the dam. No one thought it possible to accurately get a charge against the dam wall, so the experiments were to determine what size charge was needed to destroy the dam away from the wall, and at what distance such a charge might work. The problem was that the experiments proved that, to cause a breach, the charge needed to be bigger than could practically be carried.
One faint sign of encouragement had been with a new type of plastic explosive, which, when detonated a foot away from the model dam wall, caused significantly more damage than gelignite. But damage was not the same as outright destruction; as Collins had reported, the damage was certainly still not significant enough to justify an attack on the real dam. Nor was Collins entirely convinced that proportional damage would be achieved when the amount of explosive was scaled up for a real dam.
However, there was still the 35-foot-high 'real live' gravity dam in the Elan Valley in Wales, smaller than but similar in construction to the Möhne and Eder dams and which had, with Sir Henry Tizard's encouragement, duly been bought from the Water Department of Birmingham City Corporation. It had been built at the turn of the century on the Nant y Gro stream to provide water for the construction of a larger, main dam and was now redundant. It was the ideal place to conduct further experiments.
So when the AAD committee had next met, in December 1941, with both Collins and Wallis attending, they had agreed that the tests at Nant y Gro should go ahead. Nonetheless, Wallis had sensed enthusiasm was wavering, and feared that MAP funding at the Road Research Lab might well soon be withdrawn. At the time, it seemed likely that the upcoming tests would probably be the last chance to prove there was any merit at all in the plans to destroy the enemy dams. At the end of 1941, it had appeared that the project was about to fizzle out.
On the night after Wallis showed Lord Cherwell his film, Tuesday, 2 February 1943, Bomber Command sent 161 bombers to Cologne, the scene of the first thousand-bomber raid the previous summer. Among the 116 Lancasters that took off, nine were from 97 Squadron's B Flight.
This was Les Munro's tenth operational mission, and at 1813 that evening he opened the throttles of W-Willie and sped off down the runway at Woodhall, the Lancaster loaded with one 4,000lb bomb and twelve SBCs – 'small bomb containers'.
Taking off alongside him were Joe McCarthy, Johnny Johnson and the crew of C-Charlie. It was a cloudy January night, bad enough to have normally grounded the bomber force; however, this raid on Cologne was another landmark for Air Marshal Harris and his men in Bomber Command. This time, the bomber stream was guided not only by Oboe-carrying Mosquitoes but by H2S-carrying Lancasters too. Both C-Charlie and W-Willie reached the target without trouble. Munro could see cloud over the target, but green marker flares were just visible, so Sergeant Cummins released their bombs over that. They could not see their own bursts, but the city was glowing with fires.
In C-Charlie, McCarthy had also arrived to discover the city covered by patchy cloud, but Johnson had spotted the red markers and had dropped their bombs on those, and seen the strange orange light of fires beneath the cloud. McCarthy then headed for home. Both crews were back around the same time, just under five hours after they had taken off. A quick debrief, something to eat, and then bed. Another mission successfully completed.
And as far as 97 Squadron was concerned, it had been a successful night – all nine had safely returned; only five had failed to make it home out of the entire force. Yet the following day, at Bomber Command HQ, it seemed the night's raid had not been as accurate as they had hoped. Despite Oboe and H2S, no clear concentration of markers had been achieved. Damage had been caused across Cologne, but none of it especially serious. In fact, study of reconnaissance photographs showed that not a single industrial site had been hit at all.
It was, to put it mildly, disappointing.
Bomber Command's early experiments with its new navigational aids might not have been going to plan, but Barnes Wallis was feeling altogether more gung-ho about his new wonder weapon. In this first week of February 1943, an attack on the dams had never looked more likely. It wasn't only Lord Cherwell and Freddie Winterbotham who had now seen the film. A number of people had watched it, not least Air Marshal Sir Wilfrid Freeman, Assistant Chief of the Air Staff and number two to Portal. And the film was impressive: to see a Wellington delivering a spherical bomb that bounced high and long across the still waters of the Fleet could hardly fail to impress.
Events were now moving swiftly. After showing Lord Cherwell the film on 2 February, Wallis had seen Benjamin Lockspeiser, who had now taken over from Dr David Pye as Director of Scientific Research at the MAP. Wallis urged Lockspeiser to give him permission to start design work on the bigger bomb, codenamed Upkeep, which would be carried by a Lancaster. The following day, Wednesday, 3 February, Lockspeiser rang and told Wallis that Air Vice-Marshal Linnell, Controller of Research and Development, had given a partial go-ahead: preliminary work could begin on design work for the Upkeep.
The idea for the bouncing bomb had evolved following that third meeting of the AAD committee, back in December 1941. Wallis had, by the beginning of 1942, realized that a completely different approach was needed. But what? The seemingly unsolvable problem was how to get a big enough charge of explosive close enough to the dam to cause a fatal breach. He had originally accepted that an explosion against the face of the dam would be most effective. This was basic physics, and was why any explosive charge was always, where possible, placed against the structure it is trying to destroy rather than away from it. He had, however, rejected this option from his Note because he could not see how it could ever be achieved. Even so, in all the various experiments, meetings and correspondence that had gone on throughout the previous year, the possibility of exploding a charge against the dam wall had repeatedly arisen. Wallis had even consulted an RAF weapons expert, Wing Commander Baker-Carr, who confirmed that it would be quite possible to sink a charge with a time-fuse – that was, after all, what an anti-submarine depth charge relied upon. Baker-Carr had even been brought along to the June meeting of the AAD committee. One of the conclusions of the next meeting, in December 1941, had been that 'A charge of 220 lbs would be adequate to cause serious damage to stressed dams if exploded in contact with the face.' But how to achieve it? Wallis's big-bomb, high-altitude bomber had been rejected, and although a torpedo dropped from the air had been suggested, the enemy dams were protected by anti-torpedo nets.
The ongoing tests by Collins's team at the Road Research Lab were based on the assumption that delivering a charge right on the dam wall would be next to impossible. In fact, the assumption was that it would be unlikely to get any charge beyond the anti-torpedo net – which, of course, was precisely why the Germans had put them in front of their dams. Perhaps, though, the current stock of bombers in the RAF might be able – possibly – to deliver enough aerial mines, for example, which, when exploded together before the anti-torpedo nets, might create a fissure in the dam wall that, with the pressure of millions of cubic tons of water, would then subsequently force a breach. That was the hope. So far, though, the scale models suggested otherwise.
It was now early April 1942, and the Wallis house in Effingham was full of children, home for the Easter holidays. Wallis and his wife, Molly, had four, but they also looked after Molly's nephews, whose parents had been killed in the Blitz. Outside on the patio, his youngest daughter, Elizabeth, had set up a game of marbles with a tub of water. As she flicked the little glass spheres, the good marbles went into the water, the naughty marbles went onto the paving.
Later, Wallis could never recall what it was that had prompted him to think of skipping a bomb across water, but his daughter's game is as probable as anything. Every great thought needs a spark or a falling apple.
Wallis now set up a home-made catapult, a tub of water and a table on the patio at the back of their home in Effingham, commandeered some of Elizabeth's marbles, and with the children's help began firing them from the catapult, watching them bounce across the tub of water, over a taut piece of string running across the tub, and onto the table.
Ricocheting missiles across water was nothing new. The Navy had fired cannon balls this way to gain extra distance since the seventeenth century and certainly in Nelson's day. Wallis had also heard of an RAF Coastal Command crew skip-bouncing a bomb in the Channel. But no one had thought to use a specially designed bouncing bomb that could skip over water – and, most importantly, over an anti-torpedo net – to strike a specific target.
A few days after these experiments, he once again turned to Group Captain Fred Winterbotham, whose support had continued without waver, and explained his latest idea. Winterbotham grasped the significance of the bouncing-bomb concept but urged his friend to develop it further before talking about it to too many people. 'I begged him to come up with a properly baked pie,' he noted, 'no under-cooked blackbirds, please!'
Wallis heeded his advice. More home-spun experiments were carried out. He also discussed his ideas with colleagues, and it seems possible that one, George Edwards, the Vickers Experimental Manager and a keen cricketer, was responsible for suggesting Wallis apply backspin to the sphere. As a spin bowler, Edwards knew that the more revolutions applied to a cricket ball through the air, the higher it would bounce off the ground. At any rate, it seemed likely the same principles would apply to a spinning ball on water.
Wallis was not convinced, but at the end of April he quietly took his catapult to the nearby Silvermere Lake, just east of Cobham, with his secretary, Amy Gentry, a former ladies' rowing champion, to help. Applying Edwards's backspin theory, he discovered that an unspun missile bounced four or five times, but one that was rotating managed as many as fifteen. It was a significant breakthrough. He also wrote up his thoughts and research in Spherical Bomb, Surface Torpedo, a new paper that was complete by the middle of May 1942.
Ironically, in his paper, Wallis referenced a study on the bouncing theory by a German scientist, but in his own paper he showed that if a missile hit the water at an angle of incidence of less than seven degrees, it would ricochet. The missile would bounce at an increasingly lower angle of incidence until eventually it would come to a halt. Wallis also included details about the density of the missile and suggested using a double skin. The inner canister would contain the charge, the outer both the charge and a layer of air, kept in place by wooden struts. He also predicted a range of three-quarters of a mile, which would allow an attacking aircraft to drop it and turn away, and pointed out that a spherical bomb would mean less of its surface hitting the water, which in turn would allow it to travel further. It was a comprehensive and convincing paper. As Winterbotham had hoped, there was nothing half-baked about it whatsoever.
Meanwhile, at the Road Research Lab, Collins and his team had been working on two 1:10 scale models of the Nant y Gro dam in the Elan Valley. On 18 April, an explosion was detonated nine inches from the dam wall and eighteen inches deep, which caused a certain amount of damage. At the beginning of May, they went to Wales, accompanied by Wallis and his wife. At no point does Wallis appear to have mentioned his bouncing-bomb idea, because although this new potential weapon solved the problem of how to get the charge to the dam wall, Wallis believed it would still not be possible to get enough explosive in the right spot with one aircraft. It would simply be too heavy for a single Lancaster to carry.
At Nant y Gro, the first full-scale experiment was carried out with a charge away from the dam wall, just as had been done on the scale model at the Road Research Lab, but with ten times the amount of explosive. The results were much the same: damage, but no breach.
'A solution to the problem was, however,' noted Collins, 'found almost by chance shortly afterwards.' His team had to destroy one of the damaged scale models and did so using a contact charge, because, of course, a contact charge was always more effective. However, with the water in the model reservoir still behind the dam, they were stunned by the effect of the explosion. Bits of the concrete model were flung far and wide and the water gushed through a wide breach.
Immediately, Collins realized something of great significance had happened. Because any gravity dam has the same proportions, it was possible to simply scale up the amount of explosive. If Collins was right, then it should be possible to destroy the Nant y Gro Dam with far less explosive than he had hitherto realized.
Hastily, they began further tests at the Road Research Lab with different-sized contact charges and at different heights. They realized that the accidental smashing of that first model had been no fluke, and were soon able to conclude that on the 1:10 scale model of the Nant y Gro dam a four-ounce charge detonated at twelve inches below the surface of the water was enough to cause a breach. This meant that if they increased the sizes tenfold, a similar test on the actual dam should, in theory, achieve a similar breach.
The second test on the actual dam was planned for Friday, 24 July. Wallis was, naturally enough, invited to witness the test, although not until the 16th. He replied that he would attend if at all possible. 'At present,' he wrote, 'I am working under such heavy pressure that it seems unlikely that I shall be able to get away,' then somewhat huffily added, 'May I point out that the notice you give is very short.'
As it happened, Wallis was able to witness the test, which was duly carried out as planned by army engineers and filmed with high-speed cameras from the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) at Farnborough.
It proved every bit as successful as Collins and his team had hoped. A huge spume of water spray erupted into the air and then, a moment later, a huge hole was punched out of the dam wall. This was a massive breakthrough, literally and metaphorically. In any concrete or masonry gravity dam – such as Nant y Gro or the Möhne and Eder dams – the section above an arbitrary horizontal plane is always a scale model of the entire dam. In other words, the cross-section of the Nant y Gro Dam was, in effect, approximately a scale model of the Möhne and Eder. Consequently, it was possible for Collins to apply the results of this stunning experiment to a gravity dam of any height and size. Still armed with Wallis's details of the Möhne Dam, in August Collins wrote a report in which he concluded that a contact charge of some 7,500lb, thirty feet deep, would be enough to blow a gaping breach through a depth of some forty-four feet of a dam wall, an amount of explosive that was considerably less than had previously been imagined would be needed. This was a massive game-changer.
And a 7,500lb bomb did not need the Victory bomber to carry it. A Lancaster could manage it easily.
4 Sink the Tirpitz
IT WAS, ON THE FACE of it, odd that Collins should have discovered the dramatic effect of a contact charge against the face of the dam without Wallis having put him up to it first. After all, by the time of the first full-scale test at Nant y Gro, Wallis had already carried out his marble test and was some way into developing his bouncing-bomb ideas.
But, at this stage, Wallis had not approached the MAP or Air Ministry with his Spherical Bomb paper, because he had been thinking of it not as a weapon to use against dams, but rather ships – enemy capital ships, like the German battleship Tirpitz. So, on 22 April, he had taken Winterbotham along with him to discuss his findings with another old friend and contact, Professor Patrick Blackett, an experimental physicist and currently Scientific Advisor to the Admiralty.
Blackett was impressed but felt the bomb should not be limited to naval use only. Perhaps it might not work against dams, but against locks or other targets it might prove highly effective, and so immediately told his old friend Sir Henry Tizard all about it. This was just as Winterbotham had planned; he wanted the Air Ministry to become interested but felt it would be better to come from an independent authoritative source, rather than direct from himself or Wallis.
Sure enough, the very next day, Tizard visited Wallis at Burhill. Like Blackett, he was impressed and promised his support, a major stepping-stone to securing formal backing. Along with Professor Lindemann, Tizard remained the most influential scientist in the country.
With Tizard's help, Benjamin Lockspeiser, Deputy Director of Scientific Research at the MAP, had agreed to let Wallis use the two experimental ship tanks at the National Physical Laboratory at Teddington. These tests began in June and continued intermittently over twenty-two days right through until September. Further backspin tests showed not only that it increased the distance with which the missile was propelled forward before hitting the water, but also diminished the amount it plunged downward on its first impact with the surface, and increased the distance the sphere would travel while skimming across the water.
Tizard was not the only one to visit Teddington to watch these trials; so did a run of other movers and shakers within the MAP, Air Ministry and Admiralty, including Rear-Admiral Renouf.
Admiral Edward de Faye Renouf was Director of Special Weapons at the Admiralty. Now fifty-five, he had been a highly successful torpedo officer and had continued to rise up through the ranks during the interwar years, with a reputation for easy charm, intelligence, hard work and devotion to duty, so that by 1940 he had been promoted to rear-admiral and was in command of a cruiser squadron in the Mediterranean under Admiral Cunningham.
It was not to prove a happy command. In June 1940, shortly after the Italians declared war, his squadron had come under submarine attack while at anchor in Suda Bay, in Crete. Renouf had been criticized for not keeping his ships at a sufficient state of readiness. Worse was to follow, however. In January 1941, he had been commanding the cruisers HMS Gloucester and Southampton as part of Operation EXCESS, a two-part convoy to the strategically important outpost of Malta. The Luftwaffe had recently deployed to Sicily and this had been the first time German bombers had attacked British shipping in the Mediterranean. Renouf's cruiser force had been given the task of escorting a battle-crippled ship to Malta, which it successfully fulfilled, but as they sailed east to rejoin the rest of Cunningham's fleet, they came under very heavy air attack, and both the Gloucester, Renouf's flag, and Southampton were hit. Struck twice and soon ablaze, the Southampton had to be abandoned and sunk by torpedo.
The bomb that had struck the Gloucester, meanwhile, had gone straight through the roof of the director tower, right behind the bridge, where Renouf had been standing with his senior officers, yet had miraculously not exploded. Incredibly, this was the second time that Renouf had been on the bridge when struck by a dud bomb. Having cheated death twice, his nerves started to fail him, and a couple of weeks later, having safely returned to Alexandria, he was relieved of his command and flown home. Cunningham reckoned Renouf had a temperament 'always inclined to nervousness', but while recognizing that he had an undoubted ability 'and capacity for hard work', he could not recommend him for further command at sea.
Back in England, however, after a ten-month stint in a naval hospital, his intellectual capacity, wide-ranging understanding, and knowledge of both naval and other matters were considered just what was needed for a good Flag Officer. Renouf, recovering from his breakdown, had been reprieved – and justly so, because he soon proved an incisive and imaginative Director of Special Weapons.
It was another member of his staff, Lieutenant-Commander Lane, from the Directorate of Miscellaneous Weapon Development, who had alerted Renouf to the new bouncing bomb that Wallis was developing. In June 1942, he had been to see him about another of Wallis's ideas – a smoke-laying glider – but before long was being told about the bouncing bomb. Lane reported his dis cussions to Renouf, who then contacted Wallis and arranged to see the tests being carried out at Teddington.
Renouf was immediately struck by the possibilities of this weapon, and showed up again the very next day, this time with Lieutenant-Commander Lane and others in tow. Wallis set up a wax model of a battleship for their benefit and from several hundred feet further along the tank, began firing two-inch balls, which struck the side of the ship and then, with the backspin, rolled down against its underside.
Renouf and his colleagues were tremendously impressed, and immediately took steps to see how it might be developed further. A meeting was arranged with Sir Charles Craven, Wallis's boss, where Renouf urged Vickers to give some kind of unofficial priority to this work on Wallis's weapon. Already he wanted Wallis to develop a model that could be carried by a twin-engine Mosquito. The Navy's Fleet Air Arm did not operate these aircraft, but this does not appear to have worried Renouf unduly at this stage.
At any rate, this sudden and urgent interest from Renouf and the Admiralty could not have come at a better time. For all Tizard's support, both Dr David Pye and his number two at the MAP, Benjamin Lockspeiser, were less than enthusiastic, even though, by now, Wallis had fully realized that his bouncing bomb could, in theory, be used against enemy dams. A Lancaster could drop the bomb some distance from the dam, and it might then ricochet over the anti-torpedo net to the dam wall. After hitting the crest of the dam, it would sink in close contact with the water-side face of the dam and explode.
There was a massive gulf, however, between what might be possible in theory and the practicalities of getting air crew all the way to the dam and then dropping the bomb with the kind of precision required if there was to be any chance of success. Both Pye and Lockspeiser grasped the feasibility of such a weapon but, quite apart from the practical problems of delivering the weapon, were nervous about any diversion of resources to such a radical bomb that could only be used on water. It had also been agreed that any newly developed bomb had to conform to existing 'stowage conditions'. 'The general argument,' Lockspeiser wrote to Tizard on 16 June, 'was that it is quite impractical and uneconomic to modify our bombers in large numbers for the special purpose of carrying any particular bomb.' Dr Pye was also now convinced that an aerial attack on the dams was little more than pie in the sky – not because it could not, in theory, be achieved, but because there seemed far too many hurdles to overcome and too many imponderables for it to be worth the kind of hard-pressed resources it required.
The Admiralty shared none of these concerns, however, and, with the energized Admiral Renouf leading the way, not only funded Vickers' development of the 'rota-bomb' but also helped put pressure on Air Vice-Marshal Linnell at the MAP to allow Vickers to convert one of their Wellingtons for a series of tests. Renouf's team also asked the MAP for twelve experimental bombs, and on 22 July the Oxley Engineering Company was given the brief to construct them. With such backing from the Admiralty, the MAP had little option but to oblige. It may have been the Ministry of Aircraft Production, but that did not make it solely the handmaiden of the Air Ministry; the MAP served the Admiralty too.
A month later, on 25 August, Wallis was attending a meeting at the MAP with, among others, Captain Davies of Renouf's staff, Lockspeiser, Group Captain Wynter-Morgan, the Deputy Director of Armaments at the MAP, as well as 'Mutt' Summers, a former Supermarine Spitfire prototype test pilot and now with Vickers. Top of the agenda were a series of full-scale trials. A location – the calm lagoon behind Chesil Beach, in Dorset, known as the Fleet – was chosen, while other details, such as which film camera should be used, the necessary security passes and special sensitive altimeters for the Wellington, were also discussed. It was agreed that the trials should take place a month hence, at the end of September.
This was to prove overly optimistic. By mid-September, the Oxley Engineering Company had made only one bomb, which was being prepared for spinning tests on the ground, while modifications on the Wellington had also not been completed. In October, further delays were caused by Wallis becoming ill and, unusually for him, being forced to spend a few days at home recovering. However, by the end of the month, the modified Wellington was at last ready for flying trials, although there were further glitches with the substitute fillings for the trial bombs instead of the explosive that would eventually be used, should all go to plan. By 20 November, after an endlessly anxious period of intense trial and error, Wallis told Lockspeiser that, assuming no further difficulties arose, he expected the live trials to begin within a fortnight.
On Wednesday, 2 December, Mutt Summers, with Wallis on board, took the modified Wellington for a test flight over the Queen Mary Reservoir, with a trial bomb on board in order to test the spinning gear. All seemed to go well, and two days later, at 1.40 p.m. on Friday, 4 December, the Wellington took off again from Weybridge with Mutt Summers as pilot, Richard Handasyde as co-pilot, and with Wallis as bomb-aimer. With the bomb-bay doors removed and the special bomb spinning gear fixed, they flew straight to the agreed test range at Chesil Beach.
The first live trial was finally under way, but as Wallis was keenly aware, without Admiralty support his 'rota-bomb' would not have got even this far. But while the Navy believed this was a new and exciting anti-shipping weapon, Wallis still had his mind on an attack on the dams. He still believed, as strongly as he ever did, that cutting off Germany's power source was the best way to defeat the Third Reich. Destroy the Möhne and even the Eder dams, and perhaps others would come round to his way of thinking too.
5 Sitting on the Fence
THURSDAY, 4 FEBRUARY 1943. At Bomber Command Headquarters, a letter had arrived for Air Marshal Sir Arthur Harris from Air Vice-Marshal Bottomley, Assistant Chief of the Air Staff (Ops) at the Air Ministry – and this time, not the usual daily interference from the desk wallahs in London, but a new Combined Chiefs of Staff approved directive.
'Your prime objective,' the Directive instructed, 'will be the progressive destruction and dislocation of the German military, industrial and economic system, and the undermining of the morale of the German people to a point where their capacity for armed resistance is fatally weakened.'
This new Directive had been drawn up during the Casablanca Conference in January, when the Combined Chiefs of Staff – the most senior military leaders of Britain and the United States – had met in North Africa to plan future strategy. American military strength was growing, but so too was Britain's war machine. A British army had, in early November, comprehensively defeated a combined German–Italian army at El Alamein – the fighting in Egypt had seen the first major defeat of German ground forces by the British since the beginning of the war. A few days after the Panzerarmee Afrika was forced to flee westwards into Libya, a combined Anglo-US force had landed in north-west Africa. Morocco and Algeria, controlled by pro-Axis Vichy France, had been defeated and the French forces joined the Allies. Now the Allies were fighting in Tunisia, the Anglo-US First Army pressing forward from the west, the British Eighth Army pushing Field Marshal Rommel's Panzerarmee from the east. On 21 January, the same day that the new Directive had been approved, Tripoli, a key city and major port in western Libya, had fallen to the Allies. Axis forces in North Africa were being squeezed by a giant Allied pincer. Soon – in a few weeks, maybe a month or two – the Axis would be forced out of North Africa altogether.
The war news was looking brighter in the east, too. Eighteen months earlier, it had looked as though Stalin's Russia was finished, that Hitler would be victorious in the USSR, but now a corner had been turned. The German advance in the east had stalled, and at Stalingrad they had been caught in a massive encirclement.
For the first time since the start of the war, the ultimate defeat of Nazi Germany was beginning to look not just possible, but probable. After victory in North Africa, the Allies would invade Sicily in an attempt to hasten Italy's exit from the war and then they would turn to mainland Europe. A key part of this policy was to continue to tighten the ring around Germany, to never let up the pressure. More and more US bombers would be arriving in England. Together with Bomber Command they would continue to pound Germany.
Harris's new Directive also outlined a number of priority targets: German U-boat construction yards, the German aircraft industry, transportation networks, oil plants and other targets in the enemy war industry. There was, however, no specific mention of dams, or coal mines or any other power sources. Nor was there any direction given as to how this air offensive should be carried out.
As far as Harris was concerned, it was a ringing endorsement of all that he had been pressing so hard for since taking over the Command the previous February. It was a Directive designed for the tools that he had: increasing numbers of heavy bombers and larger bombs and improving navigational aids. And that meant the area bombing of Germany's major industrial cities.
Harris had spent the best part of a year building up his Command to carry out precisely what the Directive was demanding, and although it still was not the force he hoped it would become, and although early use of Oboe and H2S had been disappointing, he was sure that performance could and would improve. The key, now, was for both the Chiefs of Staff and the Air Ministry – indeed all of Britain's war leaders – to give him the kind of focused support he needed. His force was almost ready. So long as there was no more meddling, and no more diversion of resources, he felt certain he could deliver what they asked.
Harris was completely unaware that a new weapon that could bounce across water was being developed. He knew nothing of the endless meetings that were taking place, the trials off Chesil Beach, the inter-service jockeying that was going on between the Air Ministry, Admiralty and Ministry of Aircraft Production.
As it happened, it now appeared that he might never know either. After the giddy excitement for Wallis of the previous few days, he now rang Lockspeiser to find out whether there was any news on the development of the larger bomb, codenamed Upkeep. Preliminary design approval was one thing, but what Wallis wanted was a decision on developing the weapon. Lockspeiser promised to speak to Air Vice-Marshal Linnell at the MAP and get back to him. This he did that afternoon, 12 February 1943, and the news was not good. Linnell was apparently concerned that Upkeep would interfere with work on the Vickers Windsor four-engine bomber, so was going to prepare a memo which he then would circulate as a means of canvassing opinion within the Air Ministry.
The following day, Wallis headed back down to Weymouth to watch the fifth live trial along the Fleet. The first, back on 4 December, had been aborted, but although there had been problems with his bomb disintegrating on impact and other issues of height and speed, the trials had proved that the weapon would work. The fourth trial had taken place on 23 January and had recorded a 'skip' of thirteen bounces, and then one of twenty. Further modifications had been made on the casing since then, and on this final test trial the dummy bombs were smooth wooden balls, dropped from between 80 and 145 feet at around 300 mph and with the spheres revolving at between 425 and 450 revolutions per minute. The skimming distance achieved was remarkable: some 1,315 yards.
For Wallis, the lack of wholehearted support was unfathomable. The trials and the test the previous summer at Nant y Gro proved that the weapon could work. He had his film reel and accompanying latest paper, Air Attack on Dams, which involved highly detailed and authoritative research. In it, he pinpointed five dams in the catchment area of the River Ruhr, which in turn fed into Germany's industrial heartland. These were the Möhne, the largest, and singled out by Wallis in his Note, but also the Sorpe and much smaller Lister, Ennepe and Henne. Together, they held back some 254 million cubic metres of water, a staggeringly large amount. Their destruction, he argued, would wreak mayhem. It would severely disrupt heavy industry, vast amounts of damage would be caused by the floods, and the domestic and industrial water supply for some 5 million Germans and the heart of the Ruhr Valley industrial area would be greatly affected.
Wallis, admittedly, knew little about the other calls on resources, but as far as he was concerned, an attack on the dams with his larger bomb was now a no-brainer, but a decision needed to be made quickly. Time, he had stressed in his paper, was very much of the essence. The tests at Nant y Gro had showed that for the dams to be properly breached, the water level needed to be at its highest, and that was in May or June. If the go-ahead was given, he promised, it would be possible to develop a Lancaster to drop the Upkeep bombs 'within a period of two months'. Possible, maybe – but that would be cutting it fine. Very fine indeed. But if they did not launch an attack within the next three months, then they would have to wait another whole year. The point was to cause as much havoc to Germany as possible in an effort to hasten the end of the war. To wait a further year would be to defeat the whole point of the operation. If such an attack were to be launched, it needed to be now, this year, 1943.
On 12 February, Wallis learned that Linnell had finally set down his thoughts and sent them to Air Vice-Marshal Sorley, the Assistant Chief of the Air Staff (Technical Requirements). Linnell pointed out that the bouncing-bomb project was technically feasible, but certainly not yet guaranteed. He outlined the time constraint, and made the valid point that it was essential that if the attack went ahead it would need to be in sufficient strength to ensure success because the element of surprise would be essential. He also expressed his concerns about delays it would cause to the Windsor bomber project. His memo was neither for nor against going ahead. Linnell was sitting firmly on the fence.
Realizing his project was slipping away, Wallis wasted no time in despatching, via special messenger, a letter and two copies of his Attack on Dams to Fred Winterbotham, the man who had already done so much to push Wallis's ideas into the hands of men of influence that he had jokingly described himself as 'Wallis's impresario'. Winterbotham had been recently in north-west Africa – landing in Algiers two days after the invasion in November – briefing senior commanders on Ultra (the decodes of German Engima traffic) and other intelligence matters. However, he had returned by the time Wallis had been ready to show his film reel and was still in London.
'We have just worked out some of our results from the last experiment at Chesil Beach,' Wallis wrote in his letter, 'and are getting ranges nearly twice those which would be forecast from the water tank, that is, with a Wellington flying at about 300 miles an hour and dropping from an altitude of 200 feet, we have a registered range of exactly three-quarters of a mile.' He had then underlined the last point and added two exclamation marks. The problem of making a bomb for a Lancaster and fitting it was one that was easily solved, he said. 'It follows,' he added, 'that sufficient bombs for the Lancaster experiment (if, say, thirty machines were to be used, to destroy simultaneously five dams, that is, six machines per dam to make certain of doing it) can be completed within two or three weeks, and it is modifications to the aircraft itself which will take the time.' He signed off, 'Yours in great haste', then added in handwritten ink pen, 'Help, oh help.'
What Wallis was asking was for Winterbotham, once again, to use his influence and connections within the corridors of power to urge the Air Ministry into action. His friend chose to write to Air Vice-Marshal Inglis on 16 February. The Air Ministry had four Assistant Chiefs of the Air Staff: General, Policy (P), Technical Requirements (TR), Operations (Ops) and Intelligence (I). Inglis was Intelligence, and as such a direct colleague of Winterbotham's. 'You may remember I spoke to you some months ago about an invention, for which I was partly responsible,' wrote Winterbotham, throwing his own reputation behind it. It was a weapon, he said, originally devised for attack against Axis warships, but which would be ideal against 'any target where there was from a quarter to one mile of approach water surface'. He added, 'The Admiralty became enthusiastic, and through the C.C.O. and the Prime Minister, the Naval side for use against Axis ships has been rapidly developed.' In one sentence he had suggested Churchill's direct involvement (which was not true) and implied that the Navy had already got one over the RAF. 'Little enthusiasm, however,' he continued, 'appears to have been shown by the RAF in the MAP, and my fear is that a new and formidable strategic weapon will be spoiled by premature use against a few ships, instead of being developed and used in a properly coordinated plan.' This was an important point. 'I am wondering,' he wrote, 'whether the CAS or ACAS (P) have really been fully informed of the successful development of this invention.' In other words, Inglis had a duty to get Wallis's Air Attack on Dams paper to Portal without delay. It was a masterful letter, full of cunning and suggestion. Not for nothing was Winterbotham a highly respected Air Intelligence Officer within MI6.
Winterbotham was probably right in supposing that Portal had not yet been fully briefed, but his subordinates would have been wary, at such a critical time in the bomber offensive, of burdening the Chief of the Air Staff with something that many supposed still had little chance of ever seeing the light of day. Men like Lockspeiser, newly appointed Director of Scientific Research, and Air Vice-Marshal Linnell, the Controller of Research and Development, were hedging their bets, carefully trying not to be seen to support a dud project, while at the same time giving sufficient support should enough momentum gather behind it.
The day after Linnell's memo – 13 February – the project was considerably opened up at a meeting held at AVM Sorley's office – the ACAS (TR) – at the Air Ministry in King Charles Street, Whitehall, to discuss the proposed Upkeep and Highball projects. This was no small gathering. Seven staff officers from the Air Ministry were joined by three representatives from the MAP – Lockspeiser included – as well as Group Captain Sam Elworthy from Harris's staff at Bomber Command HQ, and two from the Admiralty. Their discussions proved hardly a ringing endorsement. Group Captain Bufton, Deputy Director of Bomber Operations at the Air Ministry, made it clear that he believed it was impracticable to fly at the low height required to drop the Upkeep at night and over the dams, which were, of course, in the heart of the Third Reich. As someone who had flown bomber operations during this current conflict, his opinion was not to be taken lightly. Lockspeiser suggested that developing the smaller Highball first would be the best way of developing the larger bomb, and when AVM Sorley then suggested that production of the bigger Upkeep was some six months off, no one demurred.
The meeting concluded with several of those attending being asked to go away and investigate further. Lockspeiser was asked to find out what kind of speed, height and range from the target the Lancasters would be expected to operate at were an attack on the dams to go ahead, while Group Captain Bufton was given the task of investigating the entire operational project of an attack against the dams. He was to discuss this with Wallis and other represent atives of Bomber Command. Finally, Group Captain Elworthy was to now put Bomber Command HQ fully in the picture.
The following day, Sunday, 14 February, Air Marshal Harris was finally briefed about the proposed attack on the dams. As it happened, Harris had already been investigating the possibility of destroying a large dam by dropping a number of mines near to the dam wall, although had been told this would be impossible.
Harris's reaction to Upkeep was predictable and emphatic. 'This,' he scribbled at the foot of a memo from his SASO, AVM Saundby, 'is tripe of the wildest description. There are so many ifs and buts that there is not the smallest chance of it working.'
The Commander-in-Chief of the RAF's bomber force could not have been clearer. No matter what was being discussed in the corridors of the Air Ministry and the MAP, there would be no such operation taking place if he had anything to do with it. His machines – and his bomber boys – were too valuable to be wasted on mad schemes cooked up by half-baked scientists.
6 Bomber Boys
WHEN AIR MARSHAL HARRIS took over in February 1942, he had been keenly aware that his new Command was not receiving the best press, either nationally, in the newspapers and on radio and film news coverage, or internally. The Butt Report of the previous June, instigated by Lord Cherwell, had shown, from the study of some 600 photographs, that no more than a third of all bombs dropped by Bomber Command hit within five miles of the target. This was a devastating revelation, and flew in the face of reports by the bomber crews themselves. And although the report never claimed to be infallible, the consequences were far-reaching and seriously undermined confidence in Bomber Command on the part of Britain's war leaders, not least Churchill. The Prime Minister had, even during the dark days of May and June 1940, seen Britain's bomber force's potential as a key means of taking the fight to the enemy. To have this faith in the bomber arm so starkly shaken was a damaging blow, and he immediately urged Portal to give the report his 'most urgent attention'.
In truth, bombing was still, in 1941, in its infancy, and in many ways the Butt Report gave the kind of spur that was needed to improve training and develop science. Nonetheless, the griping and criticism continued. This, Harris knew, had to stop. 'I must bring to your urgent and earnest attention,' he wrote to Portal just two weeks into the job, 'the deplorable effect on morale of the spate of largely ignorant and uninstructed chatter against our bombing policy and against the general efficiency and co-operativeness of the Air Force.'
Bomber Command needed to be in the media for the right reasons, as Harris fully recognized. This was one of the main reasons for launching the thousand-bomber raids, and, just as he had hoped, they had received immediate and emphatic support from the British media. Moreover, they allowed both Churchill and Harris to publicly talk up Bomber Command's growing strength. 'This proof of the growing power of the British bomber force,' announced Churchill, 'is also the herald of what Germany will receive, city by city, from now on.' Harris himself became very much the public face of Bomber Command after the raids, and although he preferred action rather than words, he accepted that from time to time he needed to be a visual and more vocal C-in-C – a champion of his men and their efforts. He even put his name to a leaflet dropped over Germany, which was then translated and printed in newspapers in Britain and the United States and cited on the BBC. 'We are bombing Germany, city by city, and even more terribly, in order to make it impossible for you to go on with the war,' he wrote. 'That is our object. We shall pursue it remorselessly… Soon we shall be coming every night and every day, rain, blow or snow – we and the Americans.'
There were a number of people willing to criticize Harris for adopting this kind of bombastic rhetoric, normally the preserve of the Nazis, but it was scarcely less forthright than most of Britain's newspapers and war magazines. The War Illustrated hailed the attack on Cologne as the 'Greatest Raid in History', recounting with barely contained glee the account of an RAF bomb-aimer who described endless fires and shattered buildings as he had flown over. 'Gone forever is the Cologne that we knew,' the magazine quoted one German newspaper as having reported.
Harris shrugged off the criticism. Some might find it distasteful, but it showed intent and aggression, and while there may even have been criticism in Parliament, the stock of Bomber Command – in the public consciousness at any rate – was rising.
Nor was Harris the only member of his Command to speak out. Far more frequent were brief accounts of particular raids made by the crews who flew them. John Nettleton, for example, awarded a Victoria Cross for his part in the Augsburg Raid, broadcast an account of his experience for the BBC. So too did many others. Harris was also well served by the BBC journalist Richard Dimbleby. 'Mr Dimbleby can talk to anyone he likes,' Harris told his staff, 'go where he likes, and see anything he likes, and be directly responsible to me.'
Dimbleby repaid this show of good faith when, in January 1943, he travelled as a passenger during a raid on Berlin. An attack on the German capital had been something of a surprise when it had been announced at the briefing at Syerston, where 106 Squadron was based, on the afternoon of 16 January. Bomber Command had not been there for over a year, but it was a long trip and the flak was known to be intense.
It was Dimbleby's first trip in a bomber and his aircraft came under flak attack as they crossed the Dutch coast, bursting 'in little winking flashes'. He found he couldn't really hear it above the roar of the four Merlin engines. Pushing on unscathed, they eventually neared Berlin, Dimbleby mesmerized by the searchlights crisscrossing the sky looking like a 'tracery of sparkling silver'. The amount of flak shocked him – it was far worse than anything they had experienced up to that point, and as one burst close by, he felt the Lancaster lurch upwards, 'as if a giant hand had pushed up the belly of the machine'. He watched one Lancaster drop a load of incendiaries. 'And where a moment before,' said Dimbleby, 'there had been a dark patch of the city, a dazzling silver pattern spread itself. A rectangle of brilliant lights, hundreds, thousands of them, winking and gleaming and lighting the outlines of the city around them. As though this unloading had been the signal, score after score of fire bombs went down and all over the dark face of the German capital these great incandescent flowerbeds spread themselves. It was a fascinating sight.'
The Lancaster he was in was carrying just one 8,000lb bomb, but it was to be an agonizing experience waiting to drop it: on the first run, the bomb-aimer could not see the aiming point so the pilot decided to go around again. This meant taking a wide circuit and starting the entire bomb run a second time, a decision never made lightly. But on the second run, the aiming point was still obscured so they went around a third time. Many pilots were not so assiduous, but on this third attempt, and with the Lancaster still, thankfully, undamaged, the bomb was finally released.
Immediately, the pilot began corkscrewing away into the night. For Dimbleby, this was too much. Buffeted and rocked, his stomach lurched and a moment later he was vomiting down the ladder into the bomb-aimer's compartment in the nose.
In his subsequent broadcast, Dimbleby paid tribute to the 'six, brave, cool and exceedingly skilful men' he had flown with, but finished by praising all the crews of Bomber Command. 'Perhaps I am shooting a line for them,' he said, 'but I think that somebody ought to. They and their magnificent Lancasters, and all the others like them, are taking the war right into Germany. They have been attacking, giving their lives in attack since the first day of the war.'
This was certainly true of the young 24-year-old pilot Wing Commander Guy Gibson, who had flown his first operational sortie on 3 September 1939, the day when Britain's war started. Since then, he had completed 154 operational sorties, including ninety as a Beaufighter night fighter and sixty-four bomber raids. The normal tour for most aircrew was thirty ops, and then, after a period as an instructor or with a desk job, a second tour of twenty. So Gibson had already comfortably surpassed what should have been required of him.
Despite his youth, Gibson had been CO of 106 Squadron since the previous April. That he had been given notice of his new command just a month after Harris had taken over as C-in-C was no coincidence. As Air Officer Commanding 5 Group in the first year of war, Harris had quickly spotted in Gibson the kind of 'press on' attitude and cool imperturbability that he believed made the best bomber pilots. When, in the summer of 1940, Gibson had been posted from bombers, Harris had promised that once he had done his stint with night fighters, he would give him the best command he possibly could.
Unfortunately for Gibson, in November 1941, when he learned he would soon be posted as an instructor, Harris had been Deputy Chief of the Air Staff and unable to influence operational postings. Instead, Gibson had taken himself off to St Vincents, in Grantham, the HQ of 5 Group, and had pleaded to be allowed back on bombers. It had, as he commented, been a waste of time, and he had duly been sent to 51 OTU at Cranfield. But on taking over Bomber Command, Harris had wasted no time. For Gibson, being an instructor had been a form of purgatory. He missed the camaraderie of the bomber squadron and, in any case, was driven by a compelling urge to always prove himself. Good friends of his were getting killed; why should they be giving their lives while he was stuck as an instructor?
Fortunately for him, Harris had urged AVM Slessor, then AOC 5 Group, to take him on. 'You will find him absolutely first class,' Harris told Slessor, 'and as this is a two-year-old promise now in fulfilment, I am sure you will agree to its consummation.' Gibson, still only twenty-three at the time, was given his first command, and with it some eighteen ever-changing crews and 500 men. And a year on, Gibson had repaid Harris's faith. Under his energetic and youthful command, he had moulded 106 Squadron into one of the very best in all Bomber Command. More to the point, after a further twenty-five operational missions since taking over the squadron, he was still alive.
'A good trip and fairly successful,' Gibson jotted in his log book after the long raid to Berlin and back with Richard Dimbleby. Yet the very next day, he had visited the RAF Hospital at Rauceby in a state of intense agitation. Although Syerston, where 106 was based, was some twenty miles west of Rauceby, Gibson had increasingly taken to driving over whenever he could to see Corporal Maggie North, a nurse with whom he had recently begun an intense friendship. They had met at the beginning of December, on a bleak night for Syerston. Gibson and the Station Commander, Group Captain Gus Walker, had been watching aircraft taking off when Walker spotted through his binoculars that a parked Lancaster from 61 Squadron had its bomb bay open and that incendiaries were dropping out, and some were igniting. Worried there was a 4,000lb 'cookie' on board, Walker dashed off, clambering into his car and driving as fast as he could to warn the crew. Gibson had watched him get out of his car and wave his hands, and he was twenty yards from the aircraft when the big bomb exploded. 'There was one of those great slow explosions,' noted Gibson, 'which shot straight into the air for about 2,000 feet and the great Lancaster just disappeared.' Gibson assumed his friend had been blown to pieces, but in fact, the blast had taken off an arm and blown him 200 feet backwards. But he was still alive.
A surgeon and two nurses, one of whom was Maggie North, hurried from Rauceby, where Gibson helped them tend the badly injured Group Captain. The next day, he had visited Walker in hospital and there spoke with Maggie North. After talking with her for some time and learning about the many burns victims they dealt with at the hospital, Gibson asked her for a drink.
'Yes, but…' faltered Nurse North.
'Yes, but what?' asked Gibson. She explained that she was only a corporal. There were strict codes about mixing with officers, even between sexes.
'Bugger that,' said Gibson. 'We'll go anyway.'
Gibson was already married – he had been since November 1940, to a dancer, Eve Moore, eight years his senior. He had been just twenty-one when they'd met and she had thought he looked as young as a schoolboy, but Gibson had become infatuated, his ardour heightened by the enormous casualties being suffered by Bomber Command at the time and his own conviction that he, too, was shortly to meet his death. Yet he had not died and his wartime commitments had ensured they had spent little of their married life together. Gibson's infatuation remained, but there had never been any meeting of minds. His life on the squadron, and as a bomber pilot, was too remote from his life with her. Like so many aircrew, Gibson was unable to talk to his wife about his experiences.
Maggie North, however, was different. She came face to face with the violence and trauma felt by the bomber crews every day at the hospital. The wards were filled with young men and boys burned beyond recognition, or badly mutilated by wounds. She understood. With Maggie, Gibson could escape from the crushing responsibility of commanding a squadron while repeatedly facing death himself. He no longer had to be the indefatigable and cheery leader. With Maggie, he could be himself. For her part, Maggie North was flattered by his attention but also drawn to this complicated young man, full of good heart one day, wistful and fragile the next.
On this occasion, the afternoon of 17 January, Gibson had appeared at Rauceby unannounced – as was often his way – looking washed out. A sister found Nurse North for him, and told her that her visitor looked troubled. 'I've seen that kind of thing before,' she told her. 'You better go to him.'
She found him sitting in his car, staring through the windscreen and chewing on the stem of his unlit pipe. He was also shaking, quite uncontrollably.
'Please hold me,' he asked her. She did so, folding her arms around him until eventually the shaking stopped.
'Ops last night?' she asked.
Gibson nodded, but said nothing more. It might have been the Berlin op that had prompted the brief breakdown, but more likely it was the loss of two of his best crews four days earlier over Essen. Gray Healey, especially, had been a close friend and an outstanding pilot. He was a quiet, gentle soul, but a pillar of strength within the squadron – and to Gibson. Maurice Phair, an American, had been nearing the end of his first tour, while Healey was halfway through his second. Michael Lumley, Healey's wireless operator, was a more lively personality and had been one of the great characters of 106. Gibson had waited up all night hoping that Healey might return. He was still officially missing, and there was always the slight hope that they had been taken prisoner, and Gibson had written a long letter to Healey's mother suggesting just that. Writing condolence letters was another of the added strains of command. For one so young, the burden of command was immense.
On Sunday, 14 February – St Valentine's Day – Gibson flew an operation for the first time since the Berlin raid. His workload had increased since Gus Walker had been blown up; Gibson not only greatly liked and respected him, but relied on him too, for the Station Commander had eased Gibson's administrative burden enormously. He had also been the one person to whom Gibson was willing to defer; no other person was allowed to make the slightest inroad on his authority.
Yet with or without Walker by his side, Gibson had always been keen to be a very visual CO, and a man who led by example, and that meant flying as often as he could. He liked his pilots to share that same 'press on' attitude, to be outwardly, at any rate, phlegmatic and imperturbable, and to be utterly committed to the task in hand. To be 'squadron types', as he termed them. He also liked to be seen around the place. Unlike Harris, who after his morning 'High Mass' disappeared to his office, barely to be seen again, Gibson made a point of drinking with the chaps in the Mess, of joining in on sports and games, and of imposing strict, obsessive discipline. He would also stand up for his men, would back them to the hilt against any outside pressure, or if they found themselves in trouble, but came down on them like a hammer if they erred on his watch – and more often than not, that meant those who did not fall into line with his way of thinking. In this respect, he was decidedly autocratic. He believed that any aircrew should devote their time and energy to the frontline unit. Outside influences were not welcome. His own wife was not with him at Syerston and he did not approve of his pilots living with their wives; they were a distraction.
And yet since Walker had gone, he had struck up an intense, but still platonic, relationship with Maggie North, in which they would talk about a fantasy future, living a life together in 'Honeysuckle Cottage'. Entire conversations were devoted to the décor of their cottage and what they would do: gardening, fishing trips and being surrounded by dogs. By Valentine's Day, however, that fantasy appeared to be over. Gibson had learned that Maggie had been receiving the attentions of another man, a sergeant.
'Don't do it,' Gibson told her.
'Why not?' she replied. 'No one else seems to want to.'
'You don't love him,' Gibson said.
'How do you know?'
Gibson said again, 'Don't do this.'
Maggie North was confused. Gibson had made no physical move on her at all, and yet he seemed to need her, and to have created a future for them both. She wanted more, however, and Sergeant Figgins was offering it to her.
Gibson flew to Milan on 14 February. Visibility was good and Italian anti-aircraft guns were seldom as vicious as those of the Germans. In the moonlight, the great city could easily be seen and the bombing was more concentrated than usual. Gibson was carrying a film cameraman, so after dropping his bomb circled the city, watching the rapidly growing fires below, while film footage was shot. When they eventually turned for home, fires could still be seen a hundred miles away. Furthermore, Gibson and the others from the squadron brought back six photographs that showed they had dropped their bombs on the aiming point, no small achievement.
Gibson had been born in India. His father was a colonial officer in the Imperial Indian Forest Service, and eighteen years older than Gibson's mother, who had been just nineteen when they married and only twenty-three when her second son and youngest of three had been born. Aloof and remote, Alexander Gibson was emotionally distant, not only to his wife, but to his children too. At six, Guy had, like so many colonial children before him, been sent to boarding school in England, accompanied by his mother, whose marriage was already struggling. Thereafter, Gibson had little more to do with his father.
Nor was returning to England a happy experience for his mother, who had become used to the privileged life of a colonial wife, was sexually frustrated, and soon turned to alcohol for solace. Becoming increasingly depressed and volatile, his mother was unable to provide the stability her three children, and especially Guy, as youngest, needed. With his father in India and his mother suffering from a personality disorder, Gibson and his brother and sister were starved of both parental support and affection. When Gibson was fourteen, his mother was even jailed briefly for a series of drunken driving offences. After that, he had little more to do with her. Instead, during school holidays, the children were often passed from one relative to another, although mostly to their maternal grandparents in Cornwall. There, at least, Guy was provided with some emotional stability.
Gibson rarely talked of his childhood, either to his friends, or to Eve or even to Maggie North. He was close to his older brother, Alick, and his sister-in-law, Ruth, and relied upon the stability of their married home. His tragic mother, Nora, had died at Christmas 1939, horrifically burned when her dress had caught in an electric stove – just as his infatuation with the older Eve was beginning. Yet Gibson did pick brief moments from his childhood – fishing boats leaving a pier at Porthleven, the scent of honeysuckle on a summer's evening – to furnish his fantasy future. And in this future life, he would find all that had been missing up to now.
Another officer at Syerston was Flying Officer Charlie Williams, and in sharp contrast with Gibson he had had a far more emotionally fulfilling life. An Australian, and now thirty-three years old, he had grown up in a loving and close family on a sheep station on the Flinders River in northern Queensland. It was true that they had struggled when depression hit in the 1930s, but they had recovered. Through enterprise and hard work, Charlie and his older brother, Doug, had gradually taken over the mantle from their father; by the time war was declared, the family prospects seemed good.
As farmers with elderly parents, both brothers could have avoided military service, but while it was agreed that Doug would join the Army Reserve and would stay in Australia to take responsibility for the family, Charlie volunteered for the Air Force. He had already learned to fly, but in 1939 he had been thirty, single and anxious to see something of the world. Life in the outback was a remote existence – he had never been further than Brisbane in his life, but equally, like many young Australians, felt compelled to follow a higher calling. Britain was still very much the mother country, and he believed it was his duty to play his part.
Despite volunteering, it was not until February 1941 that he was called up, and then, even with his flying experience, he was considered too old to be trained as a combat pilot. Instead, he was selected to become a wireless operator/air gunner, or WAG as they were known. After training, he finally left Australia in October 1941 with an understandable mixture of excitement, apprehension and sadness, not least because his father was suffering from heart trouble. It was a long journey, via Hawaii, the United States and Canada, and then the final leg across the Atlantic, arriving in England at the end of November 1941. After signals school at Cranwell – where he had passed out with an 'above average' assessment – he had been posted to his OTU, at Cottesmore, and there had taken part in Harris's thousand-bomber raid on Cologne. Despite his training, he had gone as a tail gunner in an old two-engine Hampden, but they had found the target all right. Cologne had been a maze of fires, but as they had turned for home, their aircraft was ensnared in searchlights and heavy flak began to burst all around them. Somehow, they managed to get through, then about an hour later were caught up in even heavier flak, the Hampden clattering and lurching as shards of metal battered the airframe. Again, they managed to get through, but having cleared the enemy coast they got lost and when they eventually approached England, found themselves targets from British antiaircraft gunners. 'We finally landed,' he wrote in a letter home, 'after being up for seven hours, feeling very tired and weary. We all had a solid rum and after briefing had breakfast and then to bed.'
By now it was 8 a.m. on 31 May, but the following day they were expected to fly again, this time to Essen. It was perhaps just as well for Williams and his crew mates, still far from ready for combat operations, that they suffered engine failure in their old crate and had to turn back. Even so, they then were ordered to take part in the third thousand-bomber raid, on Bremen on 25 June. This time, Williams spotted two enemy night fighters. They appeared to be heading straight for them, their Hampden in their sights, but before Williams opened fire, they passed by, intent on some other target. 'We were,' he wrote, 'glad to see them go.'
He had been alone among those of his OTU in being posted to 61 Squadron at Syerston, and it was as a member of the squadron that he converted to Lancasters. He had been impressed by his first flight in a Lancaster, struck by its speed and easy grace. Crewed up at last, and with a pilot who already had some operational experience, he flew his first operation with the squadron on 19 September – and it was a long one, too, to Munich. His next few missions followed in quick succession. Williams was fortunate in that he had flown in the thousand-bomber raids and emerged unscathed, but the initial handful of operations were invariably a bewildering and often terrifying experience. Luck, of course, played a huge part in whether crews survived. A chance burst of flak could strike a fuel tank on a first trip or the thirtieth. The night fighters Williams had seen over Bremen in June left them alone, but might have blasted them with high-explosive cannon shells. Statistically, the percentage chance of returning safely diminished with every flight, but, in truth, experience did make a difference. The best crews developed a sixth sense that only experience could teach them. And the more time a crew spent in an aircraft, the more natural it felt. They learned what could be done and what could not, how hard their machine could be pushed, its strengths and weaknesses. Moreover, crews became hardened. They learned what it felt like to corkscrew, with the wings bending, and the airframe shuddering; they learned to distinguish between a near miss and flak that jolted them but was harmless. Nor was the sight of a Lancaster exploding mid-air or spiralling in flames ever as shocking as it was the first time.
Williams's second trip was to Wismar on the Baltic Coast. The target had been the Dornier aircraft factory, but the weather was far from ideal and the eighty-three Lancasters sent over attacked from just 2,000 feet rather than 18,000 or more. This was later reported as a highly successful raid, but it had not seemed that way to Williams. On the way back, they flew through a series of very alarming electrical storms. This was the first time he had ever seen the phenomenon of St Elmo's Fire, caused by static electricity building up around the metal airframe. From his desk seat as wireless operator, Williams saw sparks jumping off the wings and a halo of blue jumping and flashing around the propellers. 'It is really a most frightening sight,' he wrote, 'although not dangerous.' The very next night, he was out again, this time a mine-laying operation which took a staggering ten hours fifteen minutes. The weather was once again bad, they encountered plenty of flak and when they did eventually touch down it was at Leaconfield in Yorkshire, about a hundred miles from Syerston. Williams and his crew mates did not get back until 6 p.m. the following evening. The physical and mental strain was immense. 'We were all just about done in,' he scrawled, 'after nearly 18 hours of operational flying in a week.'
By 13 February, Williams was still alive and had completed seventeen ops, so was nearly two-thirds of the way through his first tour. Many of the lads he had joined up with in Australia were now dead – half a dozen had joined the Air Force with him back home, and now all but he and his friend John were gone. So too was his friend Charlie Walker, the former Australian Test cricketer. Williams loved cricket and had played a number of games with Walker the previous summer. A mid-upper gunner, Walker had volunteered to fill a vacancy outside his normal crew, but he, the Lancaster and the rest of the crew had never returned. Williams also kept a group photograph of his air gunner's course at 14 OTU, taken the previous April. The name of each was written in white, but Williams one day wrote 'KA' – killed in action – above those he knew had already been lost. There were six marked this way already.
Williams had a stoical attitude; after all, every other aircrew at Syerston was in much the same boat. He missed home and he missed his family – he had felt an understandable bout of home-sickness at Christmas – but he had taken each day as it came, and tried not to think too far ahead. Now, however, he was, like Gibson, starting to think about a future beyond the war. Approaching his thirty-fourth birthday, Williams had never married; he had been engaged, in Australia, to a girl he met while training, but it had been a hurried wartime affair and since reaching England the letters had stopped. He had not actually broken with Millie, but it was over. That much was obvious.
But now he had met someone, a girl called Gwen Parfitt, known as 'Bobbie'. She was a secretary in Nottingham, but Williams was smitten and it seemed as though the feeling was mutual. Nottingham was only fifteen miles or so from Syerston, and Williams had a car, so it was easy enough to head over to see her whenever there was no flying and they were stood down. A shared love of books had been one of the things that had drawn them together, and Bobbie had sent him a copy of Omar Khayyam's poems. 'This, together with Kipling's "IF",' she wrote to him, 'are two of my most cherished possessions.'
In the weeks to come, their love affair would flourish. The same could not be said for Guy Gibson and Maggie North, however. On Saturday, 20 February, Gibson rang Maggie and once again implored her not to marry.
'I don't want you to do this,' he repeated.
'Guy, you are spoken for,' she told him.
A long silence. And then Gibson said, 'But I need you.'
'Eve wouldn't let you go, would she?'
Gibson sighed. 'Would you come if I asked?'
'Yes,' Maggie replied.
'Do you really mean that?'
'Yes. You know I would.'
A half-conversation, with neither really saying what they felt, both wretched and confused. Maggie North married later that same day.
By that time, however, far away to the south, events were moving fast, although Wallis's plan for an attack on the dams using his large bouncing bomb was proving divisive. Who would prevail still hung in the balance.
7 Panacea Mongers
MONDAY, 15 FEBRUARY 1943. 'DB Ops was requested to investigate the whole operational project ("UPKEEP"-versus-dam),' it had been minuted at the Air Ministry meeting of two days before, 'with the assistance of such expert advice as he might require, including, if necessary, Mr Wallis and representatives of Bomber Command.' Wasting no time, Group Captain Bufton had thus set up another meeting, this time with both Wallis and the Vickers test pilot, Captain Mutt Summers, present, as well as Group Captain Elworthy from Bomber Command, Lockspeiser and various others, including William Halcrow, a civilian engineer and friend of Wallis's whom he had frequently consulted since first working on the Note.
It was Bufton who had, two days earlier, queried the feasibility of flying such a distance to the German dams. It was a perfectly reasonable point. 'Buf', as he was known, had already been some months into the job of Deputy Director of Bomber Operations when the Augsburg Raid had taken place, and although it had been a Bomber Command initiative, the disastrous loss of aircraft and crews had not been forgotten. A daylight raid on Le Creusot, in France, had taken place the previous autumn – both Guy Gibson and Charlie Williams had taken part – but nothing at that kind of 100-foot level had been attempted since Augsburg. Nothing even remotely that low. And there was also the issue of accuracy. Bufton had been the driving force behind bringing the Pathfinder Force into being, designed specifically to improve accuracy, but Wallis's plans seemed to hinge on being able to drop the Upkeep on a sixpence.
Even so, Bufton was more open-minded than many, and an innovator within the RAF. Back in the spring of 1941, he had had lunch with Wallis at the RAF Club and had later visited him at Burhill. Wallis had also given him a copy of the Note, and more recently one of his Air Attack on Dams. Bufton may have been a 35-year-old staff officer, but he had also been an RAF high-flyer, literally and metaphorically, having been a bomber pilot and having already commanded both 10 and 76 Squadrons before taking over as Station Commander at RAF Pocklington. He was thus unusual among highly placed staff officers in that he had operational combat experience from the current conflict. If there was a realistic way of improving Britain's bombing capability, then he was always willing to back it.
Bufton thus had come to that meeting on the Monday morning with an attitude that was sceptical but open-minded. What he really wanted to discover was this: (1) Were the tactical limitations of the weapon, i.e. the height, speed and accuracy at which the Upkeep needed to be dropped, too great to make a night operation impracticable? (2) If so, could the weapon be modified to overcome these limitations? And (3), what were the timing restrictions involved with regard to water levels in the dams?
Wallis answered in detail, although in essence, he said, he estimated the bomb could be released from 250 feet at about 250 mph at any point between three-eighths of a mile and three-quarters of a mile.
Group Captain Elworthy did not mention that Harris believed the whole scheme was a load of tripe, but instead expressed the C-in-C's concern about taking away Lancasters to be modified. Wallis answered that only one Lancaster would be needed for full-scale trials. 'After the operation has taken place,' he said, 'the aircraft could be made fit for normal operations in a matter of twenty-four hours.' He also pointed out that the three smaller bombs which had been made for the Mosquito trials had been designed and produced in just one week. The large bombs for the Lancasters could be produced in two months, he reckoned, so long as they were given the right priority and that Avro was willing to cooperate. Elworthy, clearly beginning to come round, reckoned two to three weeks would be enough to train the crews needed for the operation. Targets were then examined. Wallis suggested that as well as the Möhne Dam, the Eder Dam, some forty-five miles east-south-east but with double the capacity, would also be an important target.
Wallis appeared to have won his audience over. 'It was agreed,' Bufton later reported, 'that the operation offered a very good chance of success, and that the weapons and necessary parts for modification should be prepared for thirty aircraft.' It was also agreed that so long as the operation took place before the end of June, the water levels would be right for an attack.
Bufton and Lockspeiser were among those who then followed Wallis to Teddington to see scale trials in the water tank at the National Physical Laboratory. Wallis also showed them his film reel. Bufton was impressed, and at a convivial lunch afterwards Wallis stressed upon him that a raid on the dams should have very little effect on the B.3/42 Windsor bomber project.
'In my opinion,' concluded Bufton in a long memo to his direct surperior, Air Vice-Marshal Bottomley, 'the prospects offered by this new weapon fully justify our pressing on with development as quickly as possible.'
Wallis had now won over a key part of the Air Ministry.
Unbeknown to Wallis, however, Bufton's support was something of a double-edged sword. Air Marshal Harris took a dim view of young upstarts at the Air Ministry telling him what to do, especially when they were quite a few rungs down the ranking ladder, but that was what he regularly had to put up with from the 'Three B's' – Bufton, Bottomley and Baker. They sounded more like a firm of provincial solicitors than members of the air staff, but, of the three, only Bottomley, as Assistant Chief of the Air Staff (Ops) was an Air Vice-Marshal. Both Baker, a Director of Bombing Operations, and Bufton, as Baker's deputy, were Group Captains. Group Captains! And yet they felt they had the right to send missives to Bomber Command HQ, directing Harris how to use his aircraft. He found them exasperating.
Of the three men, however, it was Bufton who particularly got on his nerves, and if there was one way above all that was guaranteed to turn Harris off any madcap plan to attack the dams, it was a recommendation from this troublesome young know-it-all, Sydney Bufton.
The truth was, Bufton had humiliated the C-in-C, and badly so, something Bert Harris was not going to forget in a hurry. This had happened the previous summer, over the matter of whether or not to create a Pathfinder Force (PFF). The idea of having a specialist squadron or group who would operate ahead of the main bomber stream and then lay target markers as a guide to the others following behind had been discussed as early as the summer of 1941, well before Harris took over Bomber Command. It had been discovered that, during the Blitz, the Luftwaffe had done just this with two specialist bomber groups, KG 100 and KG 26, and so it had been mooted – and had gained the support of Lord Cherwell – that several 'fire raising' squadrons might be developed along similar lines to those of the Germans.
This was a tactic that Bufton believed, very strongly, was absolutely essential. He had flown too many bomber operations himself where the target had been almost impossible to find, and although navigational aids were improving, he knew from practical experience that these were unlikely to be enough. So, on joining the Air Ministry as Deputy Director of Bomber Operations in November 1941, he immediately set about writing a paper in which he urged the formation of a 'target-finding force', whose aircraft would be the first to be equipped with GEE and the still being developed Oboe. 'They should start training, thinking and developing tactics,' he wrote, 'with a view to acting in a target-finding role.'
While stirring interest – not least in Lord Cherwell once again – there was little sign that anyone was prepared to push Bufton's ideas. So, at the end of February, and with Harris newly ensconced as C-in-C Bomber Command, Bufton pressed the point again in a memo to Group Captain John Baker, his immediate boss at the Air Ministry. Bufton pointed out that the current criticism of Bomber Command's efforts stemmed from a failure to carry out tactical directions and control of their bomber force. 'I urge therefore most strongly,' he wrote, 'and with the utmost urgency that we should immediately form a Target-Finding Force, cut out the dead wood from Bomber Command, and so tighten the sinews of control that the bomber force may be wielded and directed as a sharp, flexible, hard-hitting unit.' He also suggested that a target-finding force would enable attacks to be made on precision targets and even listed a few, such as several synthetic-fuel plants and the ball-bearing factories at Schweinfurt.
Bufton's report received rather more enthusiasm within Air Ministry circles this time around and eventually wound up on Harris's desk. Of course, this was precisely the kind of paper Harris loathed: unasked for and unwanted and written by a junior officer, who, despite his combat experience, did not know the whole picture. In any case, he fundamentally disagreed with the idea of creating a specialist target-finding force by creaming off the best crews of all the bomber groups into what would be a corps d'élite. This, he believed, would not only be bad for morale but would never really work because, human nature being what it was, the Groups would want to retain their best crews, and the best personnel themselves would also object to leaving squadrons in which they had half-completed tours and were looked up to, in order to be sent to new squadrons and have to start all over again.
These objections were more valid than Bufton was prepared to acknowledge. Bomber Command was still small, and there was no doubt that taking away the best crews would be keenly felt. Harris also reckoned that bombing techniques would improve by appointing certain crews as 'raid leaders' or giving the honour to the squadron that achieved the best bombing results each month.
Bufton, however, believed this was something of a false argument. Crews would not have to start their tours again if they were moved into a new target-finding force, while crew rotation within squadrons happened all the time, through tours being completed, through promotions and, of course, through casualties. He disagreed that pulling out a good crew would dent morale.
On the other hand, what most definitely would improve morale would be better results. It would stop the criticism and make the huge sacrifice more obviously worthwhile. And creating a target-finding force would be the best way to get those results, because by putting the best crews together, they would then have an opportunity to discuss, develop and co-ordinate their technique. Furthermore, they could operate with the best and latest navigational aids, such as GEE, and eventually Oboe and H2S could be quickly introduced to these few aircraft without waiting until there were sufficient supplies for the entire Command – which was another reason why adopting Harris's plan of using the best squadron in the group to lead the way would not work; not every aircraft was yet equipped with GEE.
Bufton's determination ensured that this was a debate that would not go away. Harris, therefore, decided to try and deal with it once and for all, by organizing a conference at Bomber Command and inviting all his five bomber group and two training group commanders and their SASOs – all of whom he knew he could rely on to back him – and Baker and Bufton from the Air Ministry.
The conference opened with Harris reeling off his arguments about morale and then argued that if crews were collected into a target-finding force they would inevitably lose their chance for promotion. At this Bufton, who had had two brothers shot down, lost his cool and, banging the table with his hand, said, 'Sir, you will never win the war like that! These people don't know if they will be alive tomorrow and they couldn't care less about promotion.' This was extraordinary behaviour in front of the C-in-C, and it says much for Harris's sang-froid that he merely looked at his watch and suggested it was time for lunch.
When they reconvened, the C-in-C suggested a vote. 'I need hardly tell you,' he told them, 'that I am fundamentally opposed to the idea, but I wouldn't mind hearing your views.' Needless to say, Harris's men all voted against the idea. 'It was highly significant to my mind,' noted Bufton later, 'that I, an observer, was the only person present at the conference with experience of night bombing in the war. This major, and purely tactical, problem was discussed, and a decision made, in the absence of any person with the relevant operational experience.'
Bufton was convinced that had the conference been full of experienced aircrew rather than desk wallahs, a quite different decision would have been reached, so he decided to go behind Harris's back and canvass opinion himself. Having sent out copies of his proposals for a target-finding force together with a short questionnaire to a dozen squadron and station commanders, the response was as he expected. 'TFF an urgent requirement,' wrote one. 'Have discussed idea of TFF with many senior captains who all entirely agree,' wrote another. 'A unit comparable with KG100 is vital,' said another. 'A corps d'élite even if it were unpopular is absolutely essential.' 'The Army has never suffered from having Guards Regiments.' And so on. All were unanimously behind Bufton, so he sent their copies straight to Harris and then, getting no response, followed it up with another, even more comprehensive letter, in which he summed up the whole argument.
His survey, however, was every bit as loaded as the conference Harris had convened earlier. The dozen people questioned were all known to Bufton and like-minded. There were plenty of squadron commanders he did not question. And squadron leaders did not fully appreciate the paucity of aircraft and crews that Harris was having to juggle in the first months of his command. He was not disagreeing with a target-finding force per se but, rather, its form and structure.
By June, there had still been no response, but then Bufton had been visited by Air Marshal Sir Wilfrid Freeman, at the time standing in for Portal, who was away on leave. Bufton told him that he was frustrated by the lack of progress with the Pathfinder Force and lent Freeman his folder on the matter.
'This last letter, have you had a reply?' Freeman asked.
'No, sir,' Bufton replied.
'Do you know why?'
'No, sir.'
'Because there isn't a reply,' said Freeman. 'You've beaten Bert at his own game. CAS will be in on Monday. We've got to have a Pathfinder Force and I'll talk it over with him.'
Events moved swiftly after that. The very next day, Freeman met with Bufton and Sir Henry Tizard, who gave his support, and then Freeman drafted a letter for Portal to send to Harris. 'In the opinion of the Air Staff,' ran the note, 'the formation of the special force would open up a new field for improvement, raising the standard of accuracy of bombing, and thus morale, throughout Bomber Command.'
Harris could ignore junior staff officers, but not the Chief of the Air Staff. Meeting with Portal the very next day, Harris was forced reluctantly to concede, while Bufton was asked to draw up a list of crews for this new force. The Pathfinder Force came into being on 15 August 1942. Harris viewed this humiliation as a commander in the field being overruled 'at the dictation of junior officers in the Air Ministry'. Certainly it was Bufton who had been the driving force behind creating the PFF, but it was cool logic and good sense overcoming entrenched obstinacy that had ensured the decision went in favour of creating the new force.
And that decision had been the Chief of the Air Staff 's, Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Portal, for he was the most senior air officer in the RAF and his word was final.
Harris, however, not only disliked being told what to do by young know-it-alls but also deeply disliked what he termed as 'panacea mongers'. These were those – scientists, upstarts like Bufton and others – who believed there was some panacea out there that could solve all the difficulties imposed by the current technological limitations and enable Bomber Command to become a precision bomber force. Thus 'panacea targets' were those that Wallis had originally suggested in the Note, or those synthetic-fuel plants that Bufton had mentioned. It was true in February 1942, when Bufton had been drafting Harris's Directive on behalf of Portal, that the aim was the destruction of Germany's morale and industrial cities through area bombing. However, Bufton had always meant to turn to precision bombing as soon as the tactical capabilities of the bomber force permitted. This was a distinction that Harris did not agree with. By February 1943, despite the advent of new navigational aids, and, yes, even the PFF, Harris believed his bombers were still only capable of area, not precision, bombing – much more efficient area bombing, which was why he was planning a new, concentrated effort against the Ruhr for the beginning of March. The first year of his command had been a time of trial and experimentation, but now it was time to focus on the main task: bludgeoning Germany into submission, and without Bufton and his ilk offering 'panacea targets' or madcap bouncing-bomb ideas. These people, as far as Harris was concerned, were not in the day-to-day business of running a Command such as his and therefore should not be butting in and telling him how to do his job. Nor should they be revving up scientists into believing that they, too, held the key of some fantasy bombing panacea.
So when Harris learned that at a meeting chaired by his old bête noire, Sid Bufton, it had been recommended that thirty Lancasters be modified for a low-level precision attack on the German dams using a new bouncing-bomb wonder weapon, and just before the launch of the Command's all-out offensive against the Ruhr, the reaction was explosive. To put it mildly.
8 Portal Power
THURSDAY, 18 FEBRUARY 1943. After 'High Mass' that morning, Harris had as usual driven in his Bentley back to his office and there had received a call from Air Vice-Marshal Francis Linnell, the Controller of Research and Development at the MAP. Linnell had not been at Bufton's meeting three days earlier, but Lockspeiser had been and had presumably told him of what had been discussed. In any case, Lockspeiser had been on the distribution list for the minutes. Linnell must have seen these. Linnell had been promoted to Assistant Chief of the Air Staff (Ops), Bottomley's current post, in February 1941, when Harris was still Deputy Chief of the Air Staff. The two men knew each other well – and, in fact, before joining the Air Ministry, Linnell had been Air Officer Administration at Bomber Command, one of the senior posts at High Wycombe. At the MAP, it was Linnell's job to oversee future development, but he was still a bomber man first and foremost and, top of his list, was the Windsor bomber. Furthermore, no matter how impressive the weapon or the film show reel of the Chesil Beach trials, he doubted whether such an operation against the German dams was practicable. Finally, he was also an ally of Harris's. Whether Elworthy had already reported back to his boss the details of the meeting is not clear, but Linnell certainly did.
Whether Harris actually choked on his morning coffee when he heard the news is not known, but having come off the phone to Linnell, he clearly decided it was time to stop this nonsense once and for all. At his headquarters in High Wycombe, there was, of course, only one person to go to, and that was the Chief of the Air Staff, Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Portal. Despite overruling Harris over the PFF the previous summer, Portal had been one of the main architects of the strategic air offensive and the two men had always had a close working relationship. Portal was fully aware of Bomber Command's plans for a March assault on the Ruhr and Harris was certain he would support him in getting this madcap scheme stopped in its tracks.
'Dear CAS,' Harris wrote. 'Linnell rang me up this morning about the Highball proposition.' He told Portal of his call from Linnell. 'He is as worried as I am about it.' That the C-in-C appeared to be unaware of the difference between Upkeep and Highball was neither here nor there. Size of bomb wasn't the issue; it was the principle of the entire loony scheme. 'He says,' he continued, 'that all sorts of enthusiasts and panacea-mongers are now coming round MAP suggesting the taking of about thirty Lancasters off the line to rig them up for this weapon, when the weapon itself exists so far only within the imagination of those who conceived it.' This much was true. The trial bomb was smaller than Wallis's proposed Upkeep, but bigger than Highball, and, of course, not a bomb at all, as it was inert.
'I cannot too strongly deprecate any diversion of Lancasters at this critical moment in our affairs, on the assumption that some entirely new weapon, totally untried, is going to be a success.' And now, getting into his stride, Harris let rip. 'With some slight practical knowledge and many previous bitter experiences on similar lines,' he continued, 'I am prepared to bet that the Highball is just about the maddest proposition as a weapon that we have yet come across – and this is saying something.' He was saying this with some understanding of what was involved with delivering Wallis's weapon. 'The job of rotating some 1,200 lbs of material at 500 rpm on an aircraft,' he pointed out, 'is in itself fraught with difficulty. The slightest lack of balance will just tear the aircraft to pieces, and in the packing of the explosive, let alone in retaining it packed in balance during rotation, are obvious technical difficulties.' This was true enough.
'I am prepared to bet my shirt,' he continued, '(a) that the weapon itself cannot be passed as a prototype for trial inside 6 months, (b) that its ballistics will in no way resemble those claimed for it; (c) that it will be impossible to keep such a weapon in adequate balance either when rotating it prior to release or at all in storage; and (d) that it will not work when we have got it.
'Finally, we have made attempt after attempt to pull successful low attacks with heavy bombers. They have been, almost without exception, costly failures.'
Harris's arguments were not at all unreasonable, and the final point was possibly the most valid of all. The Augsburg Raid was the obvious example. There was no question now of flying low level during daylight hours, but was Portal really going to sanction a mission that involved precious Lancasters flying at under a hundred feet, over enemy territory, beyond the Ruhr – the most heavily defended part of Germany other than Berlin – and at night and with a bonkers new weapon that had still not even been made?
'In these circumstances,' Harris stated with dismissive condescension, 'while nobody would object to the Highball enthusiasts being given one aeroplane and told to go away and play while we get on with the war, I hope you will do your utmost to keep these mistaken enthusiasts within the bounds of reason and certainly to prevent them from setting aside any number of our precious Lancasters for immediate modification. Lancasters make the great contribution to our bomber offensive, which we have to carry on so continuously against such great odds. The heaviest odds arise from the continual attempts to ruin Lancasters for some specialist purpose or to take them away for others to use.'
Having got that off his chest, Harris would have no doubt assumed that would be the last he heard of the matter. In that, however, he was to be sorely mistaken.
These were busy days for Barnes Wallis. On 18 February, he was at the National Physical Laboratory at Teddington, where he was making a further show reel, this time of underwater shots of the sphere hitting the 'dam' wall, and then, with the backspin, rolling down against the dam face. The next day, he had a meeting with Renouf and others at the Admiralty, two more meetings at 1 p.m. and 2.30 p.m., and then another screening of his original film as well as this new footage to a large gathering at Vickers House. This time, the audience included not only Sir Charles Craven but two of the most powerful men in the country: the heads of two of the armed services, Admiral Sir Dudley Pound and Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Portal.
This was certainly enough to convince the First Sea Lord to give the Highball project, at any rate, his full backing. Renouf, as far as he was concerned, had been quite right to champion the development of this weapon so wholeheartedly, and a week later, on 27 February, he made his views clear on paper. 'It is considered that the potential value of the High Ball is so great,' he wrote, 'and the need for having it ready by May is so urgent, that not only should the trials be given the highest priority, but that their complete success should be assumed now.' As if this endorsement was not enough, Pound then added, 'the High Ball is the most promising secret weapon yet produced by any belligerent and may even have a decisive effect on the war.' He recommended that the Chiefs of Staff prepare a plan for use of the Highball against the 'main units of the German Fleet and the Ruhr Dams simultaneously about the end of May'.
It was hard to imagine how Admiral Pound could have been more supportive. In fact, it was striking how unanimously excited those in the Admiralty were about the prospects of Highball. Admiral Renouf had seen its potential and having given it his full backing had skilfully steered ever-growing support for it among the Navy's senior Flag Officers, culminating with Admiral Pound. Whatever inter-departmental and Command rivalries and issues there may have been, Wallis's invention was not causing any rifts.
The same could not be said for the Royal Air Force. Highball was, on the face of it, a more obviously viable weapon than Upkeep. It was smaller, could be delivered over seas whose airspace was, for the most part, dominated by the Allies, and was a weapon apparently tailor-made for attacking German capital ships anchored deep within Norwegian fjords – ships that had for some time been high on the Royal Navy's target list, but which had remained there for want of means of getting at them. Thus Highball really did seem to be the panacea they had been vainly hoping for. Furthermore, since the Highball was smaller, it was easier to carry. And more importantly, Mosquitoes were not precious Lancasters. Such was Admiralty enthusiasm, there were even discussions about another variant, called 'Baseball' – smaller than the Highball and which, Wallis suggested, could be carried by motor torpedo boats.
Even so, the differences of opinion that were now emerging with the Air Force over Upkeep were unquestionably exacerbated by conflicting views over how best to execute the bomber war, as well as character clashes and inter-departmental rivalry and factions. It was not that one view was right or wrong; the weapon of strategic bombing was still comparatively new, even in February 1943. Technology was evolving rapidly, but Portal, Harris and the senior Air Staff were still flying into the unknown. It was just that Harris believed that continuity was best: the blunt instrument he had could only improve as more and more Lancasters were built, as navigational aids became more sophisticated, as bombsights became more technologically superior, and as the US Eighth Air Force grew alongside them. Ever increasingly heavy area bombing would get the job done, would win the war. Eventually. It had to; this was something Harris believed absolutely. Endlessly searching for a more refined, more precise weapon or method of attack was a distraction, and could only detract from what was already in place. Better to stick with what one knew than risk being derailed by something that would prove a time-consuming and costly failure. In a handwritten note at the end of a memorandum from Bottomley about Upkeep, Harris had spelled out his view even more plainly. 'This is tripe of the wildest description,' he had scribbled. 'There are so many ifs and buts that there is not the smallest chance of it working.'
On both 17 and 18 February, Wallis had been spending some of his time working on the B.3/42 Windsor – it was, after all, still Vickers' priority project – but in between had managed to continue work on the bouncing bomb; he had been at the National Physical Laboratory until 7.45 p.m. on the 18th. Friday the 19th had begun with a meeting with Captain Jeans, the Director of Miscellaneous Weapons Development at the Admiralty, to discuss Baseball and Highball, then at 2.30 p.m. he had a meeting with Barrett and Munton from the MAP 're de-icing problems'. By 4 p.m., he was at Vickers, preparing his film showing, then at 5.30 p.m. he showed it to Admiral Pound and Portal. Following this, he drove to Dorking with Admiral Renouf. On Saturday, 20 February, Wallis was at Burhill, then in the afternoon there were more meetings. Finally, on Sunday, he allowed himself a day off, not least because he was suffering from a migraine. The house was quiet, which was no bad thing. Molly had gone to Salisbury with Elizabeth and Christopher, their youngest, to see Mary, who was at school there. It was normally such a noisy, clamorous place, especially during the holidays when there were suddenly six children about, and often even more when friends came over. Like any people, they were never free of troubles. Barnes was fretting about Upkeep and Highball, but Molly had been concerned the previous week about Christopher, the youngest, who was suffering from earache and a temperature; and she was worrying about her nephew, John, who was at Epsom College and mixing with the wrong sort. Barnes and Molly had taken on the extra burden of their two nephews without question or complaint. They had been orphaned, like so many others all over the world, by the war. In many ways, John and Robert's plight only underlined how lucky Barnes and Molly were. Theirs was a close and happy family. Moreover, Barnes still regarded his wife with an uxoriousness that remained undimmed after nearly eighteen years of marriage.
Theirs had been an unusual courtship. They were, in fact, cousins by marriage, although they had not met until April 1922, when Molly Bloxam had been seventeen and in her last year at school, and when Wallis, by then already thirty-five, had been out of a job. Wallis had come from a middle-class background – his father had been a doctor in the East End of London, but suffered from polio, which meant it had been hard to keep up his practice and thus money had always been tight. His second son, Barnes had only attended the public school Christ's Hospital, in Sussex, after winning a Foundation Scholarship. Despite this, he had left school at sixteen; he had always been interested in mechanics and machinery, was good with his hands, and, determined to become an engineer, believed practical experience was the best way to achieve his goal. He became an apprentice to a shipbuilding firm on the Isle of Wight, but by hard graft and flair slowly worked his way up. In 1913, he became one of the designers in the airship development programme of Vickers, by then already an established engineering company.
Tragedy struck the family when Barnes's mother died, still young, in 1911. He was devastated; he had hoped to help his parents financially, and felt haunted by his inability to do so before it was too late. A few years later, however, in 1916, and with the country still at war, his father had remarried, to Fanny Bloxam, one of his late wife's childhood friends. After the war, Fanny's brother, Arthur, brought his family to London, which included his two eldest daughters, Baba and Molly.
By 1922, however, Vickers had finished with airship production, so that the job that had prevented Wallis from seeing frontline action – he had tried to enlist on three separate occasions but on each had been recalled – was over and he was made redundant. He had decided not to waste his time so was studying for a London External B.Sc., but then, in September, took a teaching job at a young gentlemen's academy in Chillon in Switzerland. While away, and with affection growing between him and the young seventeen-year-old Molly, they began a long correspondence, in which he taught her the fundamentals of mathematics and physics as she struggled with the beginning of her degree at London University. Thus, over long letters filled with news, observations, tender thoughts and carefully explained mathematical formulas, the romance blossomed. In April 1925, three years to the day after they had first met, they were married. He was then thirty-seven, she still only twenty, but the age gap never seemed to matter.
And by that time, he was back at Vickers as Assistant Chief Designer, working on the renewed airship programme at Howden in North Yorkshire, and doing quite well for himself. His triumph of those years had been the design of the great R.100 airship, which, at the time, was the largest ever built. The age of airships was almost over, however, and Wallis had been brought south from Yorkshire to Vickers Aviation in Weybridge in 1930. It was then that he bought White Hill House in Effingham. The impecuniousness of his childhood and the years of his apprenticeship had left Wallis seared with the desire never to be caught short. Although generous enough, he was nonetheless extremely cautious with money and never, ever, lived extravagantly. He and Molly shared a simple bungalow in Yorkshire during the airship years at Howden. With White Hill House he made a major commitment: still half-built, but big enough for a large family, it would, he hoped, be home for many, many years.
Since then, the house had long been completed and numerous features had been added by Wallis himself, including a sliding door between kitchen and living room that depended on runners made from pram wheels, removable storage space, and the patio on which he had carried out his first bouncing marble experiments. A classic Surrey house of period design, complete with mock-Tudor beams, it was comfortable, and spacious enough for their own four children and their two nephews. More importantly, set back from the beech-lined road, and looking out onto a golf course, it was a quiet haven for Wallis, a place of solidity and security, away from the politics and machinations that were such a feature of his war work.
'Rested,' he wrote in his pocket diary for Sunday, 21 February, as he tried to rid himself of his migraine. Normally on Sunday there would have been church. Wallis not only regularly rang the village bells; he also served on the Parochial Church Council and attended services whenever he could. His faith, which was profound, meant a great deal to him. There was little chance for relaxation at the moment, but when not working Wallis enjoyed a number of different pursuits. He was a keen and very able wood carver, and also enjoyed a round of golf, or listening to music on D'Erlanger's pink gramophone – Vaughan Williams was a particular favourite. Music was important in the Wallis household. Everyone had an instrument, except Barnes, but he liked to sing, especially when Molly played the piano.
There would be reading, too – he enjoyed detective novels, Agatha Christie in particular, and The Times; he would often read even at mealtimes. In the afternoon, there would be a shared bottle of beer with their gardener – although only ever a half-glass. They drank little – a sherry before supper if they had any, but nothing more. He would also read to Molly. While she mended and darned clothes, he read aloud from Dickens, Austen or Hardy. Not this Sunday, though, as Molly had gone to see Mary, at the Godolphin School in Salisbury.
As parents, they were kind, warm and loving, although strict too. The children were given plenty of freedom so long as they remembered their manners, were never late at mealtimes, and never, ever rude. 'His standards were always high,' says his eldest daughter, Mary. 'You were not rude, top and bottom of it.' The children, however, did notice that their father had become perhaps more 'severe' in recent times. 'He was more distracted, more tired,' says Mary, 'and more in the study.' But this was hardly surprising. There was much on his mind, not least on this quiet Sunday, 21 February, for the following morning he was to drive up to High Wycombe to see Air Marshal Harris himself.
It seems likely that Air Vice-Marshal the Honourable Sir Ralph Cochrane, newly appointed AOC 5 Group, Bomber Command, had played some part in gaining Wallis an audience with Harris. Cochrane was an old friend and another of Wallis's many useful contacts. They had met in 1915, when Wallis had been a Sub-Lieutenant in the Royal Navy Air Service working on airships at Walney Island, and Cochrane an RNAS airship pilot. Later, as Chief of the Royal New Zealand Air Staff, he had backed the Wellington bomber, and had been one of those invited by Wallis to visit the water tank trials at Teddington.
Cochrane was also an old and trusted friend of Harris's. The two had served together in the 1920s, when Harris had been CO of 70 Squadron in Iraq, and although the C-in-C remained extremely hostile to the proposed operation against the dams, he nevertheless agreed to hear what Wallis had to say for himself.
Wallis arrived with Mutt Summers, and armed with his film reels. Barely had they stepped inside Harris's office than the C-in-C let rip.
'What is it you want?' he growled. 'I've no use for you damned inventors. My boys' lives are too precious to be wasted on your crazy notions.' Wallis was not so easily put off his stride, however, and swiftly embarked on his usual lucid and well-argued explanations of why the attack should be launched and why it was feasible. Softening somewhat, Harris then agreed to Wallis's suggestion that he watch the film reels he had brought.
In the interests of security, only four men were present at the screening: Wallis and Summers, and Harris and his right-hand man, AVM Sandy Saundby, who was given the job of projectionist. Despite initially getting himself tangled in lots of celluloid, he eventually mastered the reel and projector and the film. When the film was finished, Harris admitted that the weapon had not been fully explained to him up to that point, but he remained as against the operation as ever. 'H. very much misinformed re: job,' Wallis scribbled in his diary. Harris was, however, noticeably less hostile than he had been to begin with, and revealed to Wallis that Portal had authorized the modification of three Lancasters. Consequently, Wallis returned to Weybridge feeling not entirely despondent. His mood was further improved when he learned later that day that the MAP had given formal approval for the modification of two Mosquitoes to carry Highball.
The following day, however, came Wallis's nadir. Summoned to Vickers' Weybridge plant to see Hew Kilner, the manager, Kilner told him that they were both to head straight up to town to see Sir Charles Craven at Vickers House. Wallis's hopes had soared, but the moment he walked through Craven's door, he realized he had misjudged the situation. There was no warm greeting, no cheery smiles. Not even an invitation to sit down. Instead, Wallis was left standing in front of Craven's desk, Kilner beside him.
Craven did not mince his words. He had been speaking to AVM Linnell, who had complained about Wallis's incessant interfering. He was making a nuisance of himself and damaging the interests of Vickers, not least the chances of the Windsor bomber. Linnell, the Controller of Research and Development, had specifically asked Craven to tell Wallis to stop this nonsense about the destruction of the dams. Wallis was not allowed a word in edgeways: Craven was telling him the orders of both the Government and the Chairman of Vickers. Eventually, Wallis managed to offer his resignation, but this just produced another tirade from the usually equanimous Craven, who repeatedly punched his fist down on his desk and cried, 'Mutiny!'
Afterwards, Wallis was so shaken that he had to stand in the corridor for a few minutes and compose himself, although when Kilner followed soon after, he again repeated his intention to resign. This was natural enough. He had received as big a dressing-down as at any time since being a boy at Christ's Hospital. The humiliation for a proud man like Wallis was terrible. All he had been trying to do was his duty to his country, and to help win the war. To make matters worse, this tirade had come from Sir Charles Craven, a man he had known and respected for years and who was normally even-tempered courtesy personified.
Clearly, what had happened was that Linnell had been speaking to Harris. From the outset, Harris had made it clear to Linnell what he thought about the plan and then, no doubt, relayed to his old colleague that Wallis had even been to High Wycombe trying to flog his idea. Harris would have told Linnell that he was as against it as ever, that he had written to Portal saying this and that he fully expected the CAS to support him.
Linnell, now confident of which way the wind was blowing, and never much keen on the project in the first place, had decided to speak to Craven, presumably throwing in a few comments about how Wallis's actions were not only damaging the Windsor bomber but also Vickers' reputation. He probably exaggerated the extent to which Wallis had been making a nuisance of himself. At any rate, something he said seems to have made Craven see the red mist.
However, what Linnell did not know, and nor did Craven, was that Portal had taken a quite different view from Harris. Winterbotham's letter of 16 February had obviously played a part, because certainly by the time he received Harris's letter of 18 February he was fully in the picture and the following day had seen Wallis's trials film and been extremely impressed. He had then written a reply to Harris's impassioned plea of the day before.
'As you know,' he began, 'I have the greatest respect for your opinion on all technical and operational matters, and I agree with you that it is quite possible that Highball and Upkeep projects may come to nothing.' Portal, unlike Harris, had grasped the fundamental difference between the two weapons. After this opening sop, however, came the 'but'. 'Nevertheless,' he continued, 'I do not feel inclined to refuse Air Staff interest in these weapons.' Upkeep, he believed, was quite a simple concept and could quickly be proved or disproved. He had therefore given the go-ahead for three Lancasters to be converted for trials. 'But there will be no further interruption of supply of Lancasters,' he promised, 'until it is known that the difficulties to which you refer have actually been overcome.' Then he added, 'Incidentally, I gather that Linnell is in favour of a limited gamble.' In this, he might have been misinformed; Linnell would hardly have spoken to Craven in such a way if so. No, it was the Air Ministry, not the MAP, where Linnell was, that was pushing forward Upkeep.
Ultimately, though, the only chance of Upkeep – as opposed to Highball – ever being taken further was on the say-so of Portal. Just as the CAS had forced Harris to acquiesce on the Pathfinder Force, so he was now overruling his bomber commander over Upkeep.
This was the power of Portal.
9 Greenlight
THURSDAY, 25 FEBRUARY 1943. The night's target had been decided at High Mass that morning, and phoned through soon after to the various groups in Bomber Command. A maximum effort: 337 bombers available. At St Vincent's, AVM Cochrane's HQ at 5 Group, the news was received then passed down to the various stations within his group, and then the various squadrons. In his office at Syerston, Wing Commander Guy Gibson received the news by telephone, then called for his two flight commanders and broke the news: it was Nuremberg.
The airfield sprang to life, just as it was doing at Woodhall Spa, where 97 Squadron was putting up nine Lancasters for the raid. Vehicles busied about the place, taking crews to their machines for their air test, while groundcrew continued preparing the aircraft for imminent take-off. Soon after, airfields all over Lincolnshire erupted with the roar of Rolls-Royce Merlin engines, starting up one by one, and then these great beasts, brown and olive drab on top, black underneath, began thundering down the runway and taking to the sky.
Half an hour after take-off, and with everything from guns to bomb doors tested, the aircraft began landing again. Taxi around the perimeter, engines off, and then crews clambering out and onto a truck to take them back to the Sergeants' and Officers' Messes for lunch. Later there was the briefing, then supper, then the mission itself.
Charlie Williams's crew were working well; they had been given a new pilot at the beginning of the month, a New Zealander, Flight Sergeant 'Woody' Woodward, and a new bomb-aimer, a nineteen-year-old, Pilot Officer Burgess. Williams and Burgess were the only two officers, but Charlie had immediately taken to Woody Woodward. He was a good pilot and Williams trusted him, which for obvious reasons was essential for the harmony and success of any crew. This night, they were airborne at 1905 along with the rest of the 61 Squadron Lancs, then it was 106 Squadron's turn. Gibson took off at 1920. A little to the north-east, at Woodhall, the 97 Squadron Lancasters began taking off just after half past seven, Joe McCarthy taking off at 1942, Les Munro finally thundering down the runway at 2005. One of the most dangerous moments of any operation was taking off, lumbering the thirty-ton Lancaster into the air, weighed down as it was by a full bomb bay. Then there was the threat of collision: hundreds of aircraft, all taking off more or less at the same time, in the dark, could easily – and sometimes did – collide.
It was a long trip to Nuremberg, scene of so many pre-war Nazi rallies: some three and a half hours at least. The forecast had been good and en route had lived up to expectations, but around half past ten, when the Pathfinders were due to arrive, there had been some haze and they were late with their marking. By the time the first bombers started to arrive, they had not completed their marking, which was, to begin with, fifteen miles short of the aiming point, from which the bomber stream would begin their bomb run to the target, and then over the target itself. Both Joe McCarthy and Guy Gibson reached Nuremberg before the PFF had finished their marking so were forced to circle, with searchlights and flak now fully alive to the roar of aircraft high overhead. 'Some aircraft failed to wait for PFF,' noted Les Munro, arriving a little after Gibson and McCarthy. Gibson, who was flying for the first time since Maggie North had got married, found the experience really quite frightening – the danger was not only from the flak but also from lots of bombers circling closely together. At last, however, the markers were lit and they began their run.
At least by this time, the haze had dispersed. 'Conditions very good for bombing,' he jotted later in his logbook. 'No cloud, excellent visibility. Target located visually and bombed from 12,000 feet. A very concentrated attack which caused huge fires and explosions.' Joe McCarthy's crew also saw the target and bombed the green target indicators. They reported two large fires, 'presumably factory'. So too did Les Munro and his crew. 'Long factory type of building seen to burst into flames,' he noted.
In the early hours of the morning they began arriving back – and none had been lost from 97, 61 or 106 Squadrons. Les Munro was back at 3.30 a.m., an hour after Gibson, McCarthy ten minutes later. Among the last to land back down was Charlie Williams's crew. They had come under heavy attack as they had returned over the French coast, and although badly shaken but not hit had then become disorientated over the Channel. 'The trip took us much longer than it should have,' noted Williams, 'and we were short of petrol and when we landed we only had four minutes' petrol left.' Luck, however, held. They made it safely, after eight hours forty-five minutes in the air. A long night.
'A good but frightening trip,' noted Gibson, by which he presumably meant successful but terrifying.
While the crews were sleeping off the raid, Barnes Wallis was heading up to London for a meeting at the MAP with none other than AVM Linnell and others. Ever since his dressing-down from Sir Charles Craven, Wallis had been wondering whether his resignation had been accepted. He had had meetings with Admiral Renouf – among others – the following day and continued working on the Highball project, but no one from Vickers had said anything more to him.
Then the previous day, Thursday, 25 February, he had received a letter from Ben Lockspeiser of the MAP asking him to attend a conference which would be chaired by AVM Linnell the following morning. This meeting had already been planned, to discuss the 'Golf Mine' – a variation that had, as its name implied, a golfball-like casing. It had been hoped that this might improve aerodynamics. In his letter, Lockspeiser had told him that Chadwick, the Chief Designer at Avro, would also be coming along. This could only really mean one thing: that Upkeep was not dead and buried after all.
The morning meeting was postponed, so it was not until 3 p.m. that it finally got under way, in Linnell's office at the Ministry of Aircraft Production on Millbank, overlooking Victoria Tower Gardens and the River Thames. There were twelve in all, including Wallis and Roy Chadwick, Sir Charles Craven, AVM Sorley and Air Commodore Baker from the Air Ministry and Group Captain Wynter-Morgan.
Whatever private thoughts AVM Linnell may have had, or even Sir Charles Craven for that matter, much had now changed. Portal had taken considerable personal interest in Upkeep and had briefed Linnell thoroughly via AVM Bottomley, the Assistant Chief of the Air Staff (Ops). 'I consider that the potentialities of the "Upkeep"', Bottomley had written in a draft memo for the CAS on 19 February, 'will fully justify our pressing on with the development of the weapon as quickly as possible.' Portal had approved this draft. 'I think this is a good gamble,' he noted, 'and I agree with the recommendation.'
So, after years of discussing a possible attack on the dams, and after a frenzied few weeks of meetings, reports, arguments and yet more discussion, the CAS had made his ruling and all the chattering and debate had stopped. Wallis was hardly the person to gloat, but, in any case, Linnell was no less likely to mention his earlier reservations. It was now his task to act upon Portal's orders. Nor was there any more mention of Wallis being a nuisance at the MAP or of his resignation. In true British style, everyone tacitly agreed never to mention it again.
And so to business. Three Lancasters were to be modified to carry Upkeep, while the bombs themselves were also to be built. The CAS had instructed that every effort was to be made to complete both aircraft and bombs so as to allow them to be used this coming spring. He did not want this development period dragging on. If the raid was going to happen at all, it was to be this year, in 1943.
'For this purpose,' said Linnell, presumably through gritted teeth, 'the CAS has allotted priority to Upkeep over work on the B.3/42 aircraft at Vickers, and over other projects on the Lancaster at Avros.' This was the intake-of-breath moment. Everyone around the table knew Harris's Ruhr offensive was about to start; they also knew the importance of Vickers' Windsor bomber project. That Upkeep was to take priority at this time showed just how seriously Portal was taking this. 'The requirement,' Linnell told them, 'is for three Lancasters to be prepared as quickly as possible with full Upkeep apparatus for trial purposes.' Then came the second bombshell. 'These are to be followed by conversion sets to complete thirty aircraft. The requirement for bombs has been stated as one hundred and fifty to cover trials and operations.'
With this stunning development, Air Commodore Baker confirmed that the final assessment of dates showed that 26 May was the latest date on which the operation could be carried out that year. It was then agreed that the programme for full delivery of all thirty modified Lancasters and 150 Upkeeps should be 1 May, so as to allow a 'reasonable' time for training and experiments.
It was now the very end of February. That meant less than three months until the very latest date for any potential raid, and just two months – eight weeks – to get the bombs and the Lancasters all ready. That was not long. That was not long at all.
The CAS had made one decision – to greenlight the project; a flurry of others were needed and right now. First, the demarcation over who was doing what part of the modifications. Eventually, it was agreed that Avro would be responsible for the strongpoint attachments to the airframe, for the bombcell fairings, for the electrical bomb release wiring, and for the hydraulic power point for the rotating motor. Vickers, meanwhile, would make the attachment arms that would carry the Upkeep, including the driving mechanism, and the bomb itself. It was also agreed that the work should be carried out at Vickers and that Chadwick would send a team of draughtsmen without delay. The first Lancaster to be modified would be housed at either Brooklands or Farnborough – on Vickers' watch, at any rate.
Wallis then suggested that all drawings could be ready in three weeks' time. Chadwick also offered to accompany Wallis and the other representatives from Vickers back to Weybridge for further discussion. They both promised to give an estimate as to when the first, second and third Lancasters and thirty additional conversion sets might be ready within forty-eight hours.
Having admitted there had been no prior plan or drawings for the modified Lancaster, Wallis then had to confess he had no detailed drawings for the Upkeep either. These, he reckoned, would take ten days. Sir Charles Craven spoke up, voicing his concern about the difficulty in getting the necessary materials and of machining a bomb the size of the Upkeep. Wynter-Morgan then reported that the Torpex – the explosive – needed was available and it would take three weeks to fill one hundred bombs.
These discussions had revealed just how tight the programme was, as Linnell now reminded everyone. 'Of the eight weeks available,' he said, 'at least four were already bespoken for the completion of drawings and filling of the bombs, leaving less than four for manufacture.' A more precise estimate was needed, which Mr Palmer, one of Wallis's colleagues at Vickers, promised to give by 5 March. Sir Charles Craven then stressed that there was no hope at all of completing the bombs unless absolute priority in materials was given.
After some further discussion about Highball and estimates for delivering the modified Mosquitoes, the meeting broke up. As Wallis left the building with his Vickers colleagues and with Roy Chadwick, his mind must have been racing. Three days earlier, he had been in deep disgrace and with Upkeep apparently finished. Now, the project had been given the greenlight. They meant to actually launch an attack on the dams. That was the aim – an operation within ten to twelve weeks.
As he stepped out onto Millbank, with the Houses of Parliament looming opposite and Westminster Abbey just a stone's throw away, did he ever really believe it would be possible to do all that was needed in such a desperately short period? He had airily been telling any who would listen that the project could be done in eight weeks, but how much of that had been pure bluster will never be known.
Whatever the truth, there must have been a suspicion among several there at that meeting that Wallis had been somewhat hoist by his own petard. The stark truth of the matter was this: Upkeep had been given the greenlight before it had even been built. It was one thing testing a prototype, but that was considerably smaller. Whether a large version would actually work was, to a large extent, unknown. At best, the entire project was a colossal gamble.
Much also depended on the close working relationship between two normally rival firms, Vickers and A. V. Roe, and, more specifically, Wallis and Chadwick, the great aircraft designer.
There was also, in truth, much resting on Portal. The higher up the chain of command someone rose, so the decisions that needed to be made became harder. This had been a big decision, and if the Upkeep project failed, he would lose a lot of face, not only with Churchill and the Chiefs of Staff, but also with Harris.
Massive responsibility now rested on Wallis's shoulders. He had talked the talk. Now, in the coming days and weeks, he had to deliver. The race to smash those German dams was now on. The clock was ticking inexorably.
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