This section introduces some key concepts, ideas and suggestions for wider reading that could be explored alongside Golding's Lord of the Flies. The section is designed for students wishing to develop a broader understanding and critical appreciation of the novel.
These are brief introductions to the topics and provide no more than a basis for beginning further independent research. Students will be provided both with questions for discussion and suggested reading on each topic, to help them formulate their own ideas.
Golding's Life and Influences
Golding was born in 1911, a period still characterized by a harsh division between social classes. However, there was also an emerging socialist movement in which politicians and writers were critical of social inequality. Golding would have been aware of this during his childhood in Marlborough, Wiltshire, since his father, Alec, was a teacher with openly socialist views. Golding's mother, Mildred, campaigned for women's right to vote.
After leaving Marlborough Grammar School, Golding attended the University of Oxford where he studied Natural Sciences for two years before transferring to English Literature. Golding married Ann Brookfield, an analytical chemist, in 1939 and they had two children, David and Judith.
In the autumn of 1935, Golding was employed as a teacher of English and music at a school in Streatham which followed the teachings of Rudolf Steiner. Steiner schools did not conform to the traditional patterns of teaching and learning, and instead emphasized the role of the imagination.
In December 1940, Golding left his second teaching post at a boy's grammar school, Bishop Wordsworth's School, Salisbury, to join the navy where he served until the end of the Second World War in 1945. His service during the war gave him direct experience of the human capacity for brutality. Golding himself said that these horrors lay behind his descriptions of the behaviour of the boys on the island.
After the war, Golding returned to Bishop Wordsworth's School where he remained until 1961. Writing always remained his primary passion and focus; however, teaching gave him further invaluable insights into human behaviour.
In Lord of the Flies the narrative suggests that evil is inherent within all of us. We cannot be certain about Golding's religious beliefs, but some critics have seen the novel as an allegory depicting Man's fall from grace. However, it could also be read as a critique of the growing cruelty and destruction that mankind is capable of inflicting, which Golding witnessed first-hand during wartime.
Questions for Discussion
1 To what extent is the novel autobiographical?
2 Golding's life experience is evident in the characters, setting and plot of the novel. Discuss.
3 Is Golding himself the omniscient narrator, ever-present in the text? Discuss the implications of your answer in terms of the structure of the novel.
Wider Reading
Other works by Golding include:
The Inheritors (novel) 1955
The Brass Butterfly (play) 1955
The Spire (novel) 1964
The Scorpion God (three short novels) 1971
Rites of Passage (novel) 1980
Close Quarters (novel) 1987
Fire Down Below (novel) 1989
The Hot Gates (a collection of essays) 1965
A Moving Target (a collection of essays) 1982
(All the above are published by Faber and Faber.)
Critical Works on Golding
Mark Kinkead-Weekes and Ian Gregor, William Golding: A Critical Study of the Novels, 3rd edn (London: Faber, 2002)
Virginia Tiger, William Golding: The Unmoved Target (London: Marion Boyars, 2003)
John Carey, William Golding: The Man Who Wrote Lord of the Flies (London: Faber, 2009)
In order to explore the literary context in which Golding was writing, it may be useful for students to consider his contemporaries:
Early 1900s – social reform:
H. G. Wells
George Bernard Shaw
Fiction and drama – 1940s/1950s
J. B. Priestley
Graham Greene
J. R. R. Tolkien
Iris Murdoch
Kingsley Amis
Lawrence Durrell
Anthony Burgess
Margaret Drabble
Tom Stoppard
John Osborne
Samuel Beckett
Poetry
Dylan Thomas
T. S. Eliot
W. H. Auden
Philip Larkin
John Betjeman
Castaway Novels
The 'castaway' genre produced such famous novels as Treasure Island (1883; serialized 1881–2) by Robert Louis Stevenson and Swallows and Amazons (1930) by Arthur Ransome. One of the aims of a castaway novel was to create the scene for a classic 'boys' own' adventure. Young men, especially public schoolboys, were expected to become soldiers and civil servants who would travel to the farthest reaches of the British Empire. The portrayal of adventure, heroism and success in this type of novel was exemplified in the many stories by G. A. Henty. Golding himself owned two of Henty's stories. Such stories encouraged boys to take up similar roles. Tales of young men – always European, often British – overcoming the threats inherent in the unexplored and apparently uncivilized parts of the world gave the impression that Western men could conquer nature itself. Indigenous inhabitants were often cast merely as a natural phenomenon.
The removal of influential adults from the narrative is a device often used in children's literature. It allows the young protagonists the freedom to evolve as characters and leaders without adults to influence, help or pass judgement on their actions. It was a convenient way of making youngsters demonstrate their independence and courage but could also allow the writer to show human nature unconstrained by the supposedly civilizing bonds of society.
In 1731 the German critic Johann Gottfried Schnabel invented the term Robinsonades to describe the growing number of castaway novels inspired by Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719). Golding was an enthusiast of the Robinsonade genre and wrote about it in the essay 'Islands' (see The Hot Gates,). The role uninhabited islands could play in removing civilization's constraints held a particular fascination for him; he immersed himself in stories such as Treasure Island (1883) and The Swiss Family Robinson (1812) where people, separated from 'civilization', are changed by their experiences. In Lord of the Flies, Golding references this tradition, when he has the boys say in Chapter Two, 'It's like in a book … Treasure Island … Coral Island'.
The Robinsonade which most directly inspired Golding was R. M. Ballantyne's children's novel, The Coral Island, published in 1857 when the British Empire and its attendant beliefs and attitudes were at their zenith. The protagonists are white boys who perform a series of daring feats which demonstrate their moral, intellectual and physical superiority to the 'natives' whom they encounter. Later critics, including the adult Golding, understood the novel as a colonialist text which portrays the arrival of white boys on a remote island as a civilizing influence on the savage, barbarous cannibals who live there.
Golding could not accept the notion of the innate moral superiority of Westerners, especially after his experiences in the Second World War; he wrote Lord of the Flies partly as a response to the Victorian text and its assumptions. The boys stranded on Golding's island share some of the Coral Islanders' names. Jack and Ralph, for example, occur prominently in both novels; the third boy in The Coral Island, whose name is Peterkin, is referenced by Golding in his character of Simon, as in Simon Peter the Apostle. Part of the effectiveness of reusing these names is in the contrasts and similarities between the characters' personalities and behaviour in the two novels.
The Coral Island is mentioned again at the end of Lord of the Flies by the naval officer who rescues the boys. He remarks, 'I know. Jolly good show. Like The Coral Island.' The reader is only too aware of the dreadful irony of these words and of the naivety of the officer's assumptions about the boys' conduct on the island. Any reader familiar with The Coral Island will also be conscious of the gulf between Ballantyne's and Golding's views of human nature. Golding's overt references to Ballantyne's novel indicate that he clearly intends the reader to make these comparisons.
There are no aborigines on Golding's island, no natives to subjugate or dispossess. Most of the boys believe in the presence of a 'beast' which could be thought to represent a native brutishness to be overcome. But Golding consistently suggests that the beast is something innate in the boys. Simon, the visionary, understands this, and it is on his return from a heroic exploration of the jungle and mountain, a courageous quest which ironically mirrors the heroism of the 'boys' own' explorers, that he himself is mistaken for the beast, and killed by the other boys. Jack, a true demagogue, understands the potential of the 'beast"s otherness as a rationale for violence and the acquisition of power, and declares that it can never be killed. Brilliantly manipulating his audience, he remarks, 'You can't tell what he [the beast] might do.'
A colonialist reading of The Coral Island locates evil in the native savages; the boys are paragons of virtue and civilization. Ballantyne's view of man is blandly optimistic; his view of English boys' pluck and resourcefulness suggests that they can subdue tropical islands as triumphantly as England imposes Empire and Christianity on lawless breeds of men. Where there is white civilization, he believes there will inevitably be justice, goodness and mercy. At the end of Lord of the Flies, Golding makes the boys' rescuer say, 'I should have thought that a pack of British boys … would have been able to put up a better show than that'. In the final paragraph, the rescuer gazes, with implicit satisfaction, on the 'trim cruiser', no doubt fully equipped with advanced weaponry, in the distance.
Questions for Discussion
1 Discuss the effects of the removal of adults as a narrative device with reference to Lord of the Flies.
2 How would the castaway novel encourage young boys to be independent?
3 How does Lord of the Flies subvert the castaway genre? Discuss with close reference to the text.
4 Compare and contrast the views of castaway societies presented in Ballantyne's The Coral Island and Golding's Lord of the Flies.
Critical Interpretations
When interpreting Lord of the Flies, it is possible to read the events of the story through a literal or a figurative point of view, or a combination of the two. One interesting approach is to view Lord of the Flies as a straightforward commentary on childhood. Golding has set his young protagonists on an island, surrounded by an impassable ocean. What happens to the boys can be viewed as a type of social experiment whereby their innocence and status as children are abruptly replaced by the harsh necessities of a more adult world. When the boys first find themselves on the island, they see authority and power as having been removed, and they take pleasure in this. As the novel progresses, they gradually reassert governance through differing power models, good and bad.
A Symbolic Approach
Alternatively, Lord of the Flies can be read more figuratively. The island may simply be a device that Golding uses to make a wider and far more troubling comment on society. The boys' descent into primitive hunting, savage fighting and intertribal conflict could be seen as portraying the emergence of their collective unconscious desires as they revert to type. They lose their individual characters and act as a group. This process has a drastically disinhibiting effect, even on such 'good' characters as Ralph and Piggy, and it seems likely that Golding here is directly referencing the terrifying aspects of mob rule, and specifically the behaviour of Hitler's followers in Nazi Germany. The island provides catalysing processes – hunting, the spreading of fire, the presence of the jungle – for the emergence of the boys' instinctual behaviours: they prove to be murderous and predatory. This in itself is a frightening prospect for the boys: their deepest desires are revealed, exposing them to a self-knowledge they have no help with. They do not recognize these feelings as being in themselves, and they create the mysterious 'beast' as a metaphorical vessel to carry them. Simon's attempt to explain this is met with derision, which perhaps masks fear. Moreover, the reaction of the naval officer and rescuer at the end of the novel offers no recognition or acceptance of the trauma the children have lived through, even though by then he observes that they have been 'having a war' (as he is) and have killed people. Golding offers the boys' behaviour as a demonstration of what society can be without the veneer of the rules and expectations that govern us, as in foreign wars or domestic riots. It is possible that the absence of females on the island is meant to indicate that the 'society' on the island is unsustainable; or that the boys are to be seen as a militarized section of society, which might offer protection to females and children, at the price of domination.
A Psychoanalytic Approach
It may also be that the boys' characters represent different parts of the personality. Golding himself recorded his own distrust of the ideas of Freud, but nevertheless it is interesting for the reader to draw upon a psychoanalytic framework, and to look to Freud and his conception of the 'psyche' – the individual personality. Freud believed the psyche is made up of three parts: the id which is concerned with our basic needs and desires; the superego which is centred on moral imperatives and (especially) prohibitions; and the ego which is concerned with negotiating a reality, striking a balance between the id and the superego. On the island, Jack reverts to basic, id-like desires, quickly taking on the role of hunter and provider. However, the fact that he never gains complete power over the boys suggests that bowing to our basic desires can be dangerous and unsatisfying. Piggy could therefore represent the concerns of the superego as he worries about fairness, order and rules. The reader therefore needs to question why the boys destroy Piggy and similarly destroy all the rules on the island. Ralph is the intermediary between Jack and Piggy. As the metaphorical ego, he tries to maintain cohesion in the group by being friends with both boys and trying to find a compromise between them.
Questions for Discussion
1 What do you think is the significance of the island being solely inhabited by boys?
2 What other symbols are there in the novel? Research Carl Jung's concept of the Shadow and explain how it applies.
3 Explore in detail how Jack can be seen as the id, Piggy as the superego and Ralph as the ego. In what ways can the boys be seen to act out these roles on the island?
4 Consider the role of the sea, literally and figuratively, in the novel. Compare with other works by Golding in which the sea figures prominently.
Colonialism and War
During the early twentieth century, many of those people administering European empires still believed in their civilizing mission over far-reaching parts of the globe. European literature and historical studies of the colonial period tended to assume the superiority of Western civilization and Westerners as well. Little heed was paid to the cultures and viewpoints of the colonized peoples. Such ideas were increasingly challenged during the era following the Second World War, both in movements seeking freedom from Western rule and in the emerging academic field of post-colonial studies.
Post-colonial thinking has developed as a historical and moral critique of the process of Western colonization which has taken place since the early sixteenth century. The post-colonial perspective deals with those areas where racialized populations were subjected to brutal exploitation such as slavery and forced labour, but it also includes 'settler societies', such as Australia, Canada and the USA, where exclusionary and even genocidal policies were pursued against indigenous or 'first' peoples. It also covers immigrant and so-called 'hybrid' cultures that grew up in the large cities in the rich countries of Western Europe.
Post-colonial thought functions as a corrective to the colonialist view that Western countries had a civilizing mission to govern, educate and develop other peoples and cultures supposedly for those peoples' and cultures' own benefit. Writers such as Joseph Conrad (Heart of Darkness, 1899) and Edward Said (Orientalism, 1978) portrayed the corrupting effects of power on the colonizers and dominant cultures through their practice of constructing racialized others who were supposedly childlike and inferior.
From the very opening of Lord of the Flies, themes of colonialism are clearly visible: a group of English schoolboys arrive on an island and try to construct a social system, confident in their 'English superiority'. Throughout, Golding undermines and corrodes the sense of 'Englishness' in the novel; the island certainly does not become a civilized paradise after the boys' arrival. Instead, Golding invites us to explore an apparently universal human capacity not just to do evil but to organize evil-doing politically.
The naval officer, who arrives at the end of the novel, believes – just like the boys at the start of the novel – in the natural superiority of the dominant power, in this case, the British. Having experienced the events of the novel, we are left in little doubt that the naval officer is as wrong as the boys; Golding has completely undermined the officer's role as an authoritative speaker. However, in our brief glimpse of the boys through his eyes, we are allowed to see them to scale – Jack, for example, that terrifying figure of capricious and brutal authority, becomes once again a 'little boy'.
Golding's text thus presents us with colonialist presumptions, before compelling us to see the limitations of these platitudes, something not offered in R. M. Ballantyne's The Coral Island.
Questions for Discussion
1 To what extent does Golding undermine a colonialist concept of Britishness?
2 Is Lord of the Flies a colonial or a post-colonial text?
3 How are the effects of the two twentieth-century World Wars explored in the text of the novel?
Postmodernism
Golding's Lord of the Flies is arguably a novel that revels in destruction, presenting a world in which society's boundaries collapse and become inverted. These ideas are central to the concept of postmodernism, which is characterized by the crisis of representation. This crisis is the result of a rejection of the assumed certainty and stability of scientific or objective efforts to represent and explain reality. As such, postmodernism is an interrogation of the very foundations of reality, and hence of society and the individual's place within it.
Collapse of Boundaries and Disintegration of the Self
In Lord of the Flies, Golding highlights the futility of the boys' efforts to maintain society's rules and routines in another setting. The boundaries between good and evil, animal and human, and self and other become blurred and ultimately disintegrate within the novel. Postmodernism postulates that many, if not all, apparent realities are only social constructs and are therefore subject to change. The individual is at risk of losing a definite subject position. In the novel, the characters Sam and Eric cease to be separate entities and ultimately dissolve into one another, becoming 'Samneric'. Through this, Golding is perhaps suggesting that the conditions under which identity is traditionally understood are unstable, dependent to a great extent on social assumptions or repetitive interactions between individuals within a group. Yet what constitutes the individual has a tendency to become fragmented when conditions change. This can be seen in the confrontation between Ralph and Jack in Chapter Eleven when the two characters become indistinguishable, and then 'apart once more, their positions reversed'.
History and Grand Narratives
For postmodernist thinkers, history is a system or narrative, and should be challenged. Postmodernism claims that there is no absolute truth; the way people perceive the world is subjective. History, for Michel Foucault, is only interpretations of interpretations; in other words the history we are given is fictional, and we should be suspicious of it. Golding himself provides an alternative 'island paradise' narrative, subverting the work of predecessors such as R. M. Ballantyne (The Coral Island) with his dystopian vision. His narrative itself becomes almost mythical as the story comes to a close. The change of viewpoint at the end, whereby the boys are suddenly seen as little and vulnerable, makes the reader realize that earlier presumptions were not secure; the initial certainties have the potential to fragment and reverse. The reader may even come to question whether the boys have been truly rescued by the arrival of the naval officer, leaving Golding's narrative open to endless interpretation and modern adaptation.
Questions for Discussion
1 At what points do the boundaries between good/evil, man/animal, self/other collapse in the novel?
2 Postmodernism can be seen as an interrogation of the individual's place in society. How does Golding produce this interrogation?
3 In the final chapter, how does Golding make the reader question the events of the entire narrative?
4 Undertake a postmodern analysis of cinematic adaptations of the text. What perspectives are depicted or favoured by the directors? With close reference to critical reviews, explore the impact of these texts on contemporary and modern audiences.
Other Points to Consider
There is insufficient scope in this section to explore all of the themes and concepts present in the text. Advanced readers should always be open-minded and strive to offer new interpretations of the characters, events, themes and ideas. They should develop probing questions that explore the relationship between the author's intention and the readers' interpretations. They should be keen to tackle the explicit and inferred or implicit meaning of themes and ideas. For example, advanced readers might explore the wider issues of gender the novel is concerned with: why are there no females on the island apart from sows? Why are the sows sacrificed? What does the lack of female presence imply about the boys' ability to function as a society? Is the fact that there are no human females on the island the reason the boys' society ultimately breaks down? What is the relationship between this 'society' and militarized warfare? How would the plot have developed if there had been females on the island? Is Golding presenting a dystopian vision of society without women?
A close reading of Lord of the Flies should generate more questions than it answers; advanced readers should be prepared to undertake independent reading on related genres and critical theories which may inform their interpretation of the text.
Further Suggested Reading
About William Golding
John Carey, William Golding: The Man Who Wrote Lord of the Flies (2009)
William Golding, The Paper Men (1983)
www.william-golding.co.uk
Castaway novels and stories
William Shakespeare, The Tempest (first performed 1611)
Daniel Defoe, Robinson Crusoe (1719)
Johann David Wyss, The Swiss Family Robinson (1812)
R. M. Ballantyne, The Coral Island (1857)
Robert Louis Stevenson, Treasure Island (1883)
Novels of childhood
Rudyard Kipling, Stalky and Co. (1899)
Ian McEwan, The Cement Garden (1978)
Utopian/dystopian works
Voltaire, Candide (1759)
Samuel Butler, Erewhon (1872)
William Morris, News from Nowhere (1890)
Aldous Huxley, Brave New World (1932)
George Orwell, 1984 (1934)
Hunting as colonialism
R. M. Ballantyne, The Gorilla Hunters (1861)
Angela Carter, 'Master' in Fireworks (1974)
'Boys' Own' stories
G. A. Henty, By Sheer Pluck: A Tale of the Ashanti War (1884)
G. A. Henty, With Clive in India (1884)
H. Rider Haggard, King Solomon's Mines (1885)
H. Rider Haggard, She (1887)
John Buchan, The Thirty-Nine Steps (1915)
Post-colonial texts
Joseph Conrad, Heart of Darkness (1899)
Chinua Achebe, Things Fall Apart (1958)
Edward Said, Orientalism (1978)
Psychoanalytic interpretations
Works of Sigmund Freud
Works of Carl Jung
Postmodernist fiction
Chuck Palahniuk, Fight Club (1996)
Thomas Pynchon, The Crying of Lot 49 (1966)
Works of Jorge Luis Borges
Works of Philip K. Dick
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