Writing a novel is a ceremony similar to a striptease. Like a girl who beneath the shameless stagelights frees herself of her clothes and shows one by one her secret charms, the novelist also denudes his intimate self in public in his novels. But, of course, there are differences. That which the novelist exhibits of himself is not his secret charms like the girl, but instead he reveals those demons that obsess him — his nostalgia, his guilt, sometimes his resentment. Another difference is that during a striptease, the girl is at first dressed and ultimately naked. In the case of the novel, the trajectory is reversed. At the beginning the novelist is naked and at the end clothed. The personal experiences that were the first stimulus to write the novel are so insidiously disguised during the process of creation that when the novel is finished no one, often not even the novelist himself, can easily hear that autobiographical heart that inevitably beats in all fiction. Writing a novel is then like an inverted striptease, and all novelists are discreet exhibitionists.
It occurred to me that it would be interesting for you, readers of novels, to attend one of these stripteases from which fiction is born. I would like to reconstruct in synthesis the process from which The Green House, the novel I wrote between 1962 and 1966, was born. The novel is situated in two very different places in my country. One is Piura, in the extreme north of the coast, a city besieged by great sand dunes. The other, very far from Piura, on the other side of the Andes, is a minuscule trading post in the Amazon region called Santa María de Nieva. These places represent two historical, social, and geographical worlds that are completely antithetical to and isolated from each other because communication between them is interminable and difficult. Piura represents the desert, the color yellow, Spanish Peru, and civilization. Santa María de Nieva represents the jungle, vegetal exuberance, the color green, Indian tribes that have yet to enter history, and institutions and customs that seem medieval. Within these two fixed settings the principal action of The Green House takes place. There is another area, the Marañón River, along which one segment of the story flows.
The origins of this novel occurred in 1945, when my family arrived in Piura for the first time. That year, which I spent in Piura as a nine-year-old boy, was decisive for me. The things I did, the people I knew, the streets and plazas and churches, the river and the dunes where my companions at the Salesian School and I went to play all remained etched with fire in my memory. I believe that no other period before or after has affected me so deeply as those months in Piura. For what reason? The problem intrigues me, and I have tried several times to understand it.
My mother says that the reason is that that year I saw the sea for the first time. Until then we had lived in Cochabamba, Bolivia, an inland city, and it seemed that the discovery of the Pacific Ocean excited me more than it did Balboa, to the point that for a long time I dreamed about becoming a sailor. Perhaps it was the discovery of my country, since 1945 was the first year I spent in Peru (my family had taken me to Bolivia a few months after I was born). In this period, between nine and ten years of age, I was a fervent nationalist. I believed that being Peruvian was preferable to being, shall we say, Ecuadorian or Chilean. I had not yet learned that one's native land is an accident in life.
But perhaps the main reason that my stay in Piura affected me so deeply was that in that year some of my friends, in an afternoon when we tried to swim in the almost dead waters of the Piura River, told me something that constituted an emotional earthquake for me: that babies did not come from Paris, that it was not true that white storks brought them to life from exotic regions. I suppose that until then I was convinced that I had arrived in this world on the soft, warm wings of that beautiful bird (which I had never seen), and that the stork had deposited me in the arms of my mother. The truth is that I was seriously offended when I discovered that things happened in a more humble way, and it took a long time for me to resign myself to the true origin of babies. Maybe that was the reason. Perhaps because I made the harsh discovery in Piura, all the events related to it in time and space entered my memory with equal tenacity.
Whatever the reason may have been, when I left Piura for Lima in the summer of 1946 I carried a constellation of images in my head. Some went away with time, others lived on pale and discolored; but two of them became more significant and vital every day. The first was the silhouette of a house built on the outskirts of Piura on the other bank of the river in the middle of the desert, a house that could be seen from the old bridge, solitary among the sand dunes. The house exercised a fascinating attraction for my companions and me. It was a rustic construction, a hut more than a house, and it had been painted entirely green. Everything about it was strange, its distance from the city, its unexpected color. Vegetation was rare then in Piura. The houses lacked gardens; there were few trees along the streets; and the walls, doors, and windows were usually white, yellow, or ocher, but almost never green.
Perhaps it was the solitude and humid exterior of the house that first aroused our curiosity. But more disquieting things further enlivened this curiosity. There was something evil and enigmatic about this dwelling, which we had baptised "the green house." We had been forbidden to approach it. According to the adults it was dangerous, even sinful to go near this place, and to enter it was unthinkable. They said it would be like entering hell itself. Adults became disturbed when we asked them about the green house. What happened inside? "Nothing, bad things, perverse things, don't ask silly questions. Be quiet. Go play soccer," they said. I suspected there was some connection between the green house and the destruction of the myth of Paris and the white storks, but I did not understand what, how, or why.
My friends and I did not dare approach the green house too closely because at the same time it attracted us, it terrified us. But we went to spy on it all the time. We had an excellent observation post on the old bridge. The most entertaining thing was to observe the green house at night because during the day this small building was calm and quiet, inoffensive. It seemed like a lizard sleeping on the sand. But at twilight the green house became a shining, living being, happy and full of noise. We could see the lights, hear the music, because at night there were singing and dancing in the green house. From the old bridge my companions and I could recognize the visitors to the green house, and that excited us even more. Hardly had the shadows fallen over Piura when the green house began to receive many visitors, and they were curiously all men. We spied on them and were shocked when we recognized our brothers, our uncles, our own fathers secretly crossing the old bridge. They became confused and alarmed if they saw us and became furious if they heard us shouting their names. They did not want people to know they frequented the green house, and to keep our mouths shut they bribed or punished us.
Another sport that my friends and I practiced consisted of recognizing one of the ladies who lived in the green house when she came to town to shop or to go to church or the movies. Another mystery was that only women lived in this strange house. I do not remember which one of us, perhaps I myself, one day began to call the fancy ladies habitantas and from then on we called them only that. We would recognize one of those elegant, proud ladies on the street, and we would run after her and surround her screaming, "habitanta, you live in the green house." And then the lady would lose her good manners, turn red, approach us, and, picking up rocks, terrify us with uncontrolled vulgarity. In school we had a professor of religion, Father García, an old, grumpy priest who became enraged when he found out we had spied on the green house or hung around the habitantas. Then he scolded and punished us. He was an avid stamp collector and his punishment always consisted in asking us for some stamps for his collection. Well, that formed one of the images that I took to Lima with me.
The other image was that of a peculiar area of the city called the Mangachería. Extremely poor people lived there, and most of their houses were flimsy mud-and-bamboo huts built on the sand because the Mangachería was also located in the desert, diametrically opposite the green house. This poverty-stricken neighborhood was the happiest and most colorful in Piura. On many of the huts were rustic flagpoles flying little red or white flags over the roofs; that is, these were taverns and pubs in which one could drink all varieties of chicha (a local beer), from the clear kind to the darkest, and enjoy the innumerable local dishes. All the musical groups, all the orchestras in Piura came from the Mangachería. The best guitarists, the best harpists, the best composers of waltzes and folksongs, and the best singers in the city were "Mangaches," from that neighborhood.
The neighborhood had a powerful, distant personality. The Mangaches were proud to have been born and to live in the area; they were Mangaches first, then Piurans, and last Peruvians. The rivalry between the Mangachería and the other neighborhood in Piura, the Gallinacera, had become legendary and given rise to terrible knife fights, to individual and collective battles. But at that time, the Gallinacera had dissolved into what we may term somewhat ironically "civilization." And only the Mangachería still represented that old, colorful, factious, uncivilized life of the city. A legend circulated in Piura about the Mangachería, that the Mangaches had never permitted a police patrol to enter the neighborhood at night. The Mangaches hated the police, and the man in uniform who ventured into this neighborhood was insulted, victimized by the taunts and rocks of the children, and at times assaulted. The Mangaches detested the police, among other reasons, because the Mangachería was also the breeding ground for the most daring thieves and the cleverest criminals in Piura.
That year, 1945, I read several novels by Alexandre Dumas. They delighted me (and they still do), and I read them with that pure burning passion with which one reads at the age of ten. I remember very well, when the Court of Miracles appeared in Dumas's novels, that hallucinatory neighborhood (according to the image of it that the romantics gave us) of old Paris, the refuge of adventurers and criminals, how I immediately thought of the Mangachería and visualized it. This identification persisted in my mind. I never hear the Court of Miracles mentioned without seeing instantly the huts; the bars; the stray dogs; the donkeys; and the noisy, rowdy Mangaches.
In Lima I entered the La Salle School, I grew up, and in the years that followed many more things happened to me than I shall narrate to you now. But seven years later I returned to Piura. That was in 1952 and, like the first time, I lived in that city for a year. I finished school there at the age of fifteen. The green house was still there, in the same place, and the Mangachería as well. Father García's stamp collection had grown, along with his grumpiness. He was an old and irritable person, who, panting and shaking his fist, chased the children who were making too much noise playing in the Merino Plaza.
By then I had admitted that the true origin of babies was not so terrible, and that the subject even had a certain charm. My classmates continued to be interested in the green house, and so did I. Adults still insisted that it was not proper to go to that place; but by that time we were no longer obedient, no longer feared hell, and physical and spiritual danger attracted us. We dared to approach and enter. Thus I got to know the green house from the inside. I confess that I suffered a bit of a disillusion. One found reality considerably beneath the rites and traffic with which fantasy had populated the green palace in the dunes. In fact, the palace became miserable and poverty-ridden; the mansion of our dreams was no more than an ordinary brothel. The ladies seemed less proud, shorter, less elegant, and more vulgar than seven years before.
But in spite of being so different from the image that we had formed of it, there was something enchanting and memorable about this brothel. It was an underdeveloped institution, lacking in comfort but certainly unique. It consisted of one enormous room full of doors that opened out onto the desert. There was an orchestra of three men; an almost-blind old man who played the harp, a very young singer who was also the guitarist, a giant weight lifter and professional boxer who played the drums and cymbals. In the corner of the room was the bar, a plank over two sawhorses, tended by an ageless woman with a bitter, puritanical face. Between the bar and the orchestra were the habitantas, walking from one side to the other or smoking as they sat waiting for their nocturnal visitors, who arrived with the dusk. Visitors and habitantas conversed and joked, danced and drank, and then the couples left to celebrate the rituals at the foot of the sand dunes, under the phosphorescent northern stars. This new image of that place coexisted with the old one when I left Piura in the early months of 1953.
I returned to Lima and enrolled in the university. My family was convinced that I should be a lawyer because I showed a strong sense of contradiction and detested mathematics. But in accord with my spirit of contradiction, I quickly exchanged law for the humanities. I wrote many poems and stories while I studied at the university, but without the idea of someday becoming a writer. It is quite difficult to think about being a writer if one is born in a country where hardly anyone reads — the poor because they do not know how or lack the means of doing it; and the rich because they do not care to. In that kind of society, to want to be a writer is not choosing a profession but an act of madness. In those years, then, I did not dare to harbor the ambition of one day being only a writer. One day I would say to myself, after all why not be a lawyer; the next day I would become a professor; and another day, perhaps the most sensible profession was journalism. I changed my decisions and my profession all the time and at the same time kept on writing in secret, like one who practices a shameful vocation.
Thus five years went by, and in 1957 I finished my studies. I began to work as a professor's assistant in a course on Peruvian literature at the University of San Marcos, and everything indicated that I would be a professor. The next year I received a scholarship to study for my doctorate in Madrid and was already packing my bags when a Mexican anthropologist, Professor Juan Comas, arrived in Lima. He came to Peru to investigate Amazon Indian tribes. The University of San Marcos and the Summer Institute of Linguistics had sponsored an expedition for him, and through my friendship with one of the organizers I had the good fortune to be a part of the small group that accompanied Professor Comas.
We were in the jungle a few weeks, traveling in a small hydroplane and by canoe, particularly through the region of the Upper Marañón, where the Aguaruna and Huambisa tribes[1] are found scattered over a large area. In this way I got to know that tiny locality, Santa María de Nieva, the other scene of The Green House. This trip through Amazonian Peru impressed me very much. I discovered one face of my country that I had completely ignored. I believe that until then the jungle was a world I sensed only through reading "Tarzan" and seeing certain movie serials. But by visiting the area I discovered that Peru is not only a twentieth-century country, as one can believe if one never leaves Lima or the coast, but also a country living in the Middle Ages and in the Stone Age. Thus I discovered that for those who live in this isolated region, life is behind the times and occasionally ferocious, that violence and injustice create the first law of existence, not in the complex, refined, "developed" manner of Lima, but in a more immediate, obvious way.
When I returned to Lima, I carried with me a small lizard embalmed by the Shapras, a bow and some arrows from the Shipibos,[2] and most important a wealth of memories from the trip. In the years that followed, three images stood out most vividly from the mass of things seen and heard. The first was the Mission of Santa María de Nieva. The town had grown up around this mission, founded in the forties, it seems, by Spanish missionaries who went to that inhospitable region in order to evangelize the Huambisas and the Aguarunas. We had a chance to know the missionaries at close range. We could see the difficult life they led in this place that was disconnected from the world during the rainy months, when the gullies that surround it become homicidal torrents. We could see the enormous sacrifice that remaining in Santa María demanded of them. But at the same time we could see how all this heroism, instead of reaching the goal that inspired it, achieved exactly the opposite. And we saw that the good nuns did not even remotely suspect that fact.
What happened? The nuns had built a school for the Aguarunas; they wanted to teach them to read and write, to speak Spanish, to wear clothes, and to worship the true God. The problem had developed shortly after the school opened. The Aguaruna girls did not come to the mission, and their parents did not take the trouble to send them. The principal reason probably was that the Aguaruna families did not want their daughters "civilized" by the nuns. Why were they opposed to it? Because they suspected that once "civilized" the daughters would not wish to have anything to do with their tribes or families.
The problem was solved in an expeditious way. Periodically, a group of nuns went out accompanied by a military patrol to bring in girls from the settlements in the forest. The nuns entered the villages, picked out the girls of school age, took them to the Mission of Santa María de Nieva, while the patrol went along to neutralize any resistance. The girls stayed for two, three, or four years in the mission and were finally civilized. They learned the language of civilization, civilized habits, how to read, write, sew and embroider, and naturally the true religion. They learned to wear clothes and shoes, cut their hair, hate their former condition, and be ashamed of their old beliefs and customs.
But what happened when these girls were duly prepared for civilization? The problem for the nuns was enormous because in Santa María de Nieva nothing like civilized life existed; there barbarity reigned. What could be done with the girls, return them to their tribes, to their families? It would have been absurd and cruel to return them to a way of life which the nuns had systematically taught them to abhor, and which these girls probably now remembered with terror. It would be very difficult for them to adapt themselves to life as before — half-naked, worshiping snakes or trees, being one of the two or three slaves of a "cacique," a boss. Neither could these girls remain indefinitely with the nuns; they had to make room for new students.
How did the nuns resolve the second problem? They entrusted many of the girls to representatives of civilization who passed through Santa María de Nieva: officers from frontier outposts; merchants from Bagua, Contamana, or Iquitos; engineers or technicians who were engaged in petroleum prospecting in the region. Thus these girls from the jungle left for the cities, for Lima, where, foreseeably, they would live out their days as cooks or nursemaids, in the hovels of the distant slums, or in the green houses. Without wishing to or even realizing it, under tremendous hardship, the nuns of Santa María de Nieva were acting as the providers of domestics for middle class families and were populating the houses of the slums and brothels of civilization with new tenants.
The Mission of Santa María, the nuns, and the Aguaruna girls would remain a vivid reminder of that trip through the jungle. Another reminder was a man whom we met on the trip. In Urakusa, not far from Santa María de Nieva, we heard the story of Jum, the chief of a small Aguaruna settlement. He had come out to receive us; and we saw that his head was shaved, his forehead split, and his back and armpits scarred. The story began some weeks back when the corporal of the garrison at Borja, Roberto Delgado Campos, asked his superiors for permission to go to his native town, Bagua. The corporal set out on the trip from Borja accompanied by seven men. In Urakusa, when it became known that the group was approaching, the Aguarunas, fearing that there was a levy of soldiers, took refuge in the bush. The corporal and his men spent the night in the deserted community. They left the next day, their knapsacks filled with many provisions and valuable objects they had found in the town. When the Urakusas returned and saw that they had been robbed, they went in search of the thieves. They found them some days later as Delgado Campos and his men were sleeping in the forest. The corporal and three of his men were captured, beaten, and then liberated.
Some days later, an official expedition from Santa María de Nieva arrived in Urakusa to settle accounts for what had occurred. The lieutenant governor of Nieva commanded the expedition, which was comprised of eleven men. On seeing them arrive in his village, Jum came out to welcome the governor. The latter, when Jum was close enough, hit him with a lantern on the forehead. The Aguarunas began to run, but along with Jum, five men, two women, and several children were captured. The rest of the town disappeared into the forest. The prisoners were tied up in a hut in Urakusa, which the neighbors, excited and loquacious, showed us. There the prisoners were lashed and kicked by the soldiers who accompanied the governor. The two women were raped. One of them, the wife of a man named Tandím, was assaulted in front of her husband and children.
The next day, Jum was transported alone to Santa María de Nieva. They hung him naked from a tree in the plaza, and he was beaten senseless. They burned his armpits with hot eggs (I never understood how they did it). Humiliation followed torture: they shaved him. The lieutenant governor of Santa María de Nieva, the justice of the peace, the mayor, the lieutenant of the Battalion of Engineers, the school teacher, and a Jesuit missionary witnessed the punishment. After three days of torture, Jum was freed, and he returned to Urakusa. He spoke some Spanish and could tell us the story in detail.
The incident with Corporal Delgado Campos does not fully explain the violence that Urakusa and Jum had to endure. The basic reason for the brutality of the authorities of Santa María de Nieva was economic. Sometime before this episode, the Aguarunas had tried to organize a cooperative to escape the domination of the patrones, the men who controlled the rubber-and-hide business in the region. The tribes of the Upper Marañón lived there from the rubber that they sold to the patrones, or middlemen, who in turn sold it again to the industrial markets or to the Agricultural Bank. The patrón bought a kilogram of rubber that fluctuated between one and five soles and resold it in Contamana for a sum three or four times greater.
That was only one aspect of the system. The majority of the Aguarunas and Huambisas who provided the rubber did not read or write, and even fewer knew how to use the scales on which the merchandise was weighed. Thus on receiving the rubber, it was the patrón who determined its weight, always said to be less than it really was; the scales were accordingly fixed. Even worse, the exchange was not based on money but paid in kind. The patrón paid in machetes, guns, and clothes whose price he himself fixed. In this way the Aguaruna was always in debt to the middleman when he handed over his rubber. The gun, the machete, the food, and clothing he received were never paid for by the balls of rubber, so that once again he had to penetrate the jungle to extract more rubber, which some months later would increase his debt in a new transaction with the middleman.
This system had prevailed for dozens of years. It was a holdover from the rubber fever of the golden age of the jungle at the end of the last century and the beginning of the present one. That era was well past its prime. The patrones now were squalid, barefooted, semiliterate men of primitive customs. The rubber and skins of the Amazon were no longer a good business. In the Upper Marañón, man's exploitation of his fellow man reached the limits of bestial violence, but the beneficiaries of that horror obtained from it only a bare survival rather than riches or wellbeing. The poverty of the region and the anachronism of its society demanded that exploitation be extended to the most microscopic levels.
In the government's "education plan" for the jungle, a system had been devised at that time that consisted of sending the most intelligent, spirited men of the tribes to take a two or three months' course in Yarinacocha, where the headquarters of the Summer Institute of Linguistics was located, so that later they could return to their tribes and open schools. Jum had received this training at Yarinacocha. I do not know whether this short excursion into "civilization" made good teachers of the group of Aguarunas. But it opened the eyes of some to a concrete problem, that of finding out the true value of money and things, the abuse of which made them victims because of the underhand work of the patrones. They discovered that if instead of selling the balls of rubber and skins to the middleman they sold them directly in the cities, they would obtain much greater profits; and also that the objects they received from the patrones in exchange for the rubber would cost much less if they were bought in stores.
Thus was born the idea of forming an Aguaruna cooperative, and Jum had been one of the promoters of the idea. A meeting of mayors of ten or twelve settlements in which the Aguarunas are dispersed along the Upper Marañón took place in Chicais; and there Jum and the other teachers had convinced their people to stop trading with the patrones, and instead to collect the rubber and skins from each town in Chicais in order to make an expedition once a year to Iquitos to sell them directly to the industrialists. They constructed a large building to serve as a warehouse. We knew the building in Chicais, for there we had hung mosquito netting but had spent a sleepless night because of the horrible smell of rubber and the jaguar and alligator skins.
The Aguaruna cooperative project was the death sentence for the patrones' business. It was for that reason that the authorities of Santa María de Nieva — the patrones of the region — had punished Urakusa and Jum under the pretext of the Delgado Campos incident. They had admitted that fact to Jum while they tortured him; and when they permitted him to return to his village, they ordered the Aguarunas to forget about selling things themselves in the city. Jum's face and his story would form one of the most important memories of our trip through the jungle.
Another recollection I have of that trip is that of a man we never saw. I knew his history or rather his legend by hearsay. Everyone spoke of him; he was the center of rumors and gossip in all the towns and villages where we stopped in the Upper Marañón. His deeds became myths that in each place were retold with the additions and deletions of local fantasy. Everyone said that he was a devil, but they said it with open admiration. Who was this man? What was his history? I will reconstruct as well as I can the swell of contradictory facts that we collected here and there. He had been seen many years ago going up the Marañón, and in the places where he stopped he announced his plan to go up the Santiago River to a territory where the Huambisas were thinly dispersed. No one knew where he came from or why he had chosen that densely overgrown territory to settle. He was a Japanese named Tushía.
During World War II the Japanese were harassed in Peru; and Tushía was fleeing from that harassment, according to some, or from crimes he had committed in Iquitos, according to others. People had tried to dissuade him from going on in that inhospitable and faraway region. In those days the Huambisas had hardly any contact with the civilized world, and tales of blood and ferocity were woven around these people, just as around all Peruvian and Ecuadorian tribes. "Don't go there, don't be crazy, the Huambisas are dangerous," the Christians of the towns through which he would pass told Tushía. "They will eat you, they will kill you," they said. The mysterious Japanese did not follow their advice but went up the Santiago River and settled on a small island in the densest part of the region very close to the Ecuadorian border and remained there until his death.
In a few years, this extraordinary person became a shady, enigmatic feudal lord. The Huambisas did not kill him, but it was a miracle that he did not kill all the Huambisas. Tushía organized a small personal army made of up outcast Aguarunas and Huambisas, men who for some reason had been expelled from their tribes, of soldiers who had deserted the border garrisons, and of other "Christian" adventurers like himself. Tushía and his men periodically assaulted the Aguaruna and Huambisa tribes during the times they knew that the rubber and skins were being collected to be handed over to the patrones. Then, through intermediaries, he sold his merchandise in the cities. He also sequestered girls. This particularly was the reason for his popularity in the region and the envious cult that formed around him. Tushía's harem became a myth; some said that it contained ten girls; others, twenty or more. Each man populated the harem with the number he would have liked for himself.
Some years later, during a second trip to the jungle, in a settlement called Nazareth, I heard the testimony of a man who had known Tushía and had seen him invading a tribe with his band. It was a baroque, sensuous ceremony more complicated and artistic than simple pillage. Once the village was occupied and the resistance of the natives conquered, Tushía dressed himself up as an Aguaruna. He painted his face and body with achiote[3] and rupiña[4] like the natives and presided over a great celebration in which he danced and drank masato[5] until he fell unconscious.
He had learned the Aguaruna and Huambisa languages perfectly; and he liked to dance, sing, and get drunk with those from whom he stole rubber and women. This story did not belong mainly to the past; it was happening at the same time that it was being told to us. It had been repeated for many years, with absolute impunity, almost before our very eyes. The embarrassed Mission of Santa María de Nieva, Jum's punishment, and the legend of Tushía form the three images that captured for me this trip through the jungle. I had conflicting emotions. Now I understand all of it better, but a few years ago it embarrassed me to admit it. On the one hand all that barbarity infuriated me; it made my country's backwardness, injustice, and lack of culture even more evident. On the other hand it all fascinated me; what formidable material to narrate!
From the beginning I thought about writing something about all this, and kept a notebook full of notes taken on the trip. I stayed a few weeks in Lima and then left for Europe. In Europe I first wrote a book of short stories, then my first novel, The Time of the Hero. After that, I decided to write another novel based on my recollections of Piura and the jungle. After I finished The Time of the Hero, I felt ill, disgusted with literature. Then I conceived the project, curiously therapeutic, of writing two novels simultaneously. I thought that writing two would be less distressing than writing one by itself because to go from one to the other would be refreshing, rejuvenating. A grave mistake. It worked out just the opposite. Instead of abating them, the headaches, problems, and anxieties doubled. I lived in Paris at that time and earned my living as a journalist and professor.
That was how in 1962, in a creaking but glorious (because Gérard Philipe[6] had lived downstairs) apartment on Rue de Tournon, those memories of Piura — the green house and the Mangachería — and the jungle — the Mission of Santa María de Nieva, Jum, and Tushía — returned to my mind. I had rarely thought of them in the intervening years, but now those images returned stronger and sharper than ever. As I mentioned, I had decided to write two novels: one, situated in Piura, based on my memories of that city, and the other in Santa María de Nieva, availing myself of what I remembered of the nuns, of Urakusa, and of Tushía. I began to work according to a rather rigid plan, one day on one novel, the next day on the other. I worked with these parallel stories for a few weeks or perhaps months. The work soon began to be painful; as the world of each novel was developing and taking shape, I had to make a greater effort to keep each one separate and independent in my mind.
In truth, I could not carry out my plan. Each day, each night I had to confront tremendous confusion. Absurdly, my principal effort consisted of keeping each character in its proper place. The Piurans invaded Santa María de Nieva, the inhabitants of the jungle fought to sneak into the green house. It became harder and harder to hold each character in his respective world. It was too tiring to keep on fighting to separate them. Then I decided not to do it any longer; I decided to combine those two worlds, to write a single novel that would embrace that whole mass of reminiscences. It took me another three years and much tribulation to bring order to such disordered material.
I had two distinct images of the green house. The first, that palace in the dunes that I had seen only from the outside and from faraway, and more with my imagination than with my eyes when I was a nine-year-old child. The second, the poor brothel where we went seven years later on Saturdays with good tips as fifth-year students at the San Miguel School. In the novel, these two images were converted into two green houses — two houses separated in time and space and constructed on different planes of reality. The first, the fabulous green house, became a remote, legendary brothel whose bloody history would be known only through the memories, fantasies, gossip, and lies of the people of the Mangachería. The second would be real and objective, somewhat like the other half, the pedestrian and immediate reverse of the mythical, uncertain institution, a reasonably priced brothel where the Mangaches went to chat, get drunk, and purchase love.
I remember quite well the faces and (although I am not completely certain) the names of the three members of the orchestra in the brothel: Anselmo, the old blind harpist; Alejandro, the young singer and guitar player; and Bolas, the muscular drum-and-cymbal player. I kept those faces and names in the novel, but to those elusive silhouettes I had to add biographies replete with anecdotes. Young Alejandro had a romantic name and romantic features; I invented for him a sentimental love story like those told in Peruvian waltzes. Bolas's impressive physical appearance suggested to me a classical stereotype: the giant with the tender, generous heart like Porthos in The Three Musketeers or Lotario in Mandrake the Magician. In Anselmo I revived a character dear to all enthusiasts of novels of chivalry and adventure films, especially Westerns: the stranger from afar who comes to a city and conquers it. I had always had a weakness for Mexican melodrama, and to humanize this lonely stranger a little, I added to Anselmo's story a decidedly truculent amorous episode. To do that, I used my recollection of a novel by Paul Bowles, The Sheltering Sky. At one point in this novel a man says (actually, or in his dreams) to a woman, "I want you to be blind, so I can terrify you, love you by surprise, play with you."
Ever since I read that novel, I have felt a perverse need to write a love story whose protagonist would be blind. To make Anselmo's passion even more sinister, I decided that Antonia, the girl with whom he falls in love, should be mute as well as blind. I remembered that in Piura matrimonial kidnappings were frequent, sometimes with the discreet consent of the respective families. The lover carried his beloved away to a ranch, the friends said goodbye to the couple on the highway, and a month later the wedding was formalized with due process of law. Anselmo would kidnap Antonia, carry her away to live in "the green house," where she would later die. All this, besides, had Faulknerian overtones because for me Faulkner was the paradigm of novelists. There are, of course, many reasons for a Latin American writer to be influenced by Faulkner. First is the literary importance of Faulkner's work; he is probably the most important novelist of our time, the most original, the most rich. He created a world as rich as the richest narrative worlds of the nineteenth century. But there are more specific reasons for which Faulkner has such appeal in Latin America. The world out of which he created his own world is quite similar to a Latin American world. In the Deep South, as in Latin America, two different cultures coexist, two different historical traditions, two different races — all forming a difficult coexistence full of prejudice and violence. There also exists the extraordinary importance of the past, which is always present in contemporary life. In Latin America, we have the same thing. The world of Faulkner is preindustrial, or, at least, resisting industrialization, modernization, urbanization — exactly like many Latin American societies. Out of all this, Faulkner created a personal world, with a richness of technique and form. It is understandable that to a Latin American who works with such similar sources, the techniques and formal inventions of Faulkner hold strong appeal.
It turned out to be quite difficult to narrate the love story of Antonia and Anselmo. The subject was so bizarre that it seemed incredible. I tried to narrate it from Anselmo's point of view, then from that of Antonia, and then from the indirect point of view of a group of Mangaches who evoked the episode at a table in a bar, but none of these forms seemed convincing. One day, I can no longer remember how, I found the right formula for putting that "terrible romance" into words. This was the idea. The story of Anselmo and Antonia would be narrated not as it really happened (that would never be known), but as the Mangaches supposed or wanted it to happen. In the novel, the existence of this sentimental adventure would have the same vacillating, subjective character as the first green house. It occurred to me then (only after throwing many rough drafts into the wastebasket did this form take shape) to introduce a narrative voice different from that of the impersonal narrator that would represent the conscience, or soul, of the Mangachería and that would literally put in order, by means of commands, the love story of Anselmo and Antoñita.
All of this had to be carefully ambiguous. The voice would at times be so close to Anselmo's own that it would seem to mix with his, to be his. But at the same time it would have a liquid quality; a certain atemporality; a suspicious, solemn tone that would denote in some way the mythical background of this story.
I worked with discipline and with an enthusiasm that never diminished. I worked nights at Radio-Télévision Française, but I had the whole day to myself. I got up at twelve and immediately after showering sat down at the typewriter to write until seven or eight at night. I did not have the least difficulty in evoking Piura. I just had to close my eyes to see its narrow streets, its high sidewalks, its houses with wide grilled windows, and to hear the rhythmical and catchy local speech, similar to that of the Mexicans. I remembered the local sayings; and my room was full of churres, piajenos, guás,[7] and those unforgettable superlatives. It was all there in my memory, palpitating and unharmed.
To evoke Santa María de Nieva and the Amazon was, however, an exhausting effort: a few events, facts, certain situations, some faces, and a handful of anecdotes were all the raw material I had to work with to try to recover that immense world. My ignorance of that environment tormented me; I knew nothing of the trees, the animals, of mores and local customs. For an entire year I read whatever I could find in the Parisian bookstores and libraries on the subject of the Amazon. I can modestly say that I have read the worst, the most absurd literature in the world. Once a week I went to the Jardin des Plantes to see the trees and flowers of the Amazon, and one of the guards probably took me for a diligent botany student. Actually, these Amazonian texts immunized me against excessive description, and in the end I would only describe in my book a tree that I could not see in Paris, the lupuna, an enormous hump-backed tree that appears in jungle stories as the abode of evil spirits.
From time to time I also went to observe jungle animals in the zoo at the Bois de Vincennes; and every time I saw a puma or a vicuña, I remembered what another Peruvian writer who had also lived in Paris many years wrote. This writer, Ventura García Calderón, commented that when he would pass by the llama's cage, the animal's eyes would fill with tears of sadness upon recognizing a compatriot.
I changed the unclear legend I had heard of Tushía for a more sordid and concrete story, that of a pathetic adventurer obsessed with the idea of becoming rich, who during the course of his life commits horrifying atrocities to reach his goal but fails in all his endeavors and ends his days in the leper colony of San Pablo, a lost colony on the shores of the Amazon River near the Brazilian border. My intention was to keep the real name of the original model in the novel, but at a given moment the T of his last name was mysteriously changed to an F, and his name became Fushía. I made him leprous because that disease was still possible in the Amazon and because of some hair-raising pages in Flaubert's journal of his trip to the Orient, in which he gives a detailed account of his untimely encounter with a band of lepers in an Egyptian alley.
I had never seen a leper. My work as a journalist at the television station permitted me to enter the leper world in Saint Paul's hospital in Paris, where, under the pretext of writing a story, I managed to have a young doctor let me see some of the lepers and give me technical explanations about the disease. It was a common theme in all the novels located in the Amazon and, because of its rich literary tradition, had a kind of naturalistic aura about it. In order to lessen that danger somewhat, I decided not to mention the word leprosy even once. I remember well that I was most deeply touched when I was working on the last episode of the novel, in which Fushía, then just a vestige of a human being, chats with old Aquilino who has come to visit him after a long absence and no doubt for the last time. Never have I felt such tenderness for a character as I felt in that episode.
I planned to relate in The Green House, with maximum accuracy, the story of Jum, the Aguaruna cooperative, and the punishment that was inflicted on Urakusa. In the initial plan and in the first drafts of the novel, Jum appears as one of the principal characters, perhaps the most important one. But I was unable to carry out my original plan. I tried many times to reconstruct what might have been Jum's life from the time he was hurled into the world in the middle of the forest or on the bank of a river until they hung him from a tree like a manatee. And after destroying innumerable pages, I tried to narrate from his own point of view that tragic episode of his life that I knew. Every time the same thing happened. Those pages always seemed artificial, false, and awkwardly folkloric. I had already suspected it, but now I knew it in a personal and existential manner. The real truth is one thing, and the literary truth is another; and there is nothing more difficult than to want both truths to coincide.
I am not saying that literature is something totally unconnected with reality. What I am saying is that the truths that come out of literature are never the truths personally experienced by the writer or the reader. Literature is not a transposition of living experience. Real and important knowledge about reality always comes out of literature, but through lies, through a distortion of reality, through a transformation of reality by imagination and the use of words. That is why the novel that tries to depict real experience in an objective and precise way fails. It cannot succeed because the novel was invented, not to transcribe reality, but to transform it, to do something different, to make of real reality an illusion, a separate reality. When you succeed in creating something different out of real reality, real experience, you also achieve the possibility of communicating something that was not evident before that novel or poem or play existed. But you cannot plan this transmission of knowledge. The novel is a reality in itself, reality created out of fantasy and words that makes literature something very different from real life, which, of course, is something not created by imagination or words. Thus when you write a novel you must not shrink from the idea of distorting or manipulating reality. Distortion and manipulation of fact are necessary in a novel. You must lie without any scruples, but in a convincing way so that the reader accepts your lies as truths. If you succeed in this deception, something true will come through these lies, something that did not exist before, something that was not evident before. But if your intention is just to reproduce things of reality in fiction, you will probably fail as a writer because literature, in order to persuade and convince the reader, must become a sovereign world, independent, a world that has emancipated itself from its mother, from reality.
Differentiating between what is and what is not a novel comes down to whether it is possible for the text to become independent of reality, to have a life of its own. When you read War and Peace you have no personal experience to verify what the novel tells you, but the power of the novel is such that you are persuaded of its true reality. And so it is a novel. But if a novel, in order to be accepted and believed by the reader, demands from him a personal experience in order to verify that what is told in the book is true and convincing, it is not a novel; it is a document, disguised history, disguised journalism. For example, there was an anthropologist a few years ago who used literature in order to divulge some sociological data by writing books that were presented as novels. The Life by Oscar Lewis is one. It was important because it used material that was taken from real reality and was an instrument for informing the reader about that particular reality. But it is not a novel. A real novel never gives this kind of information. It can give it as a supplementary aspect of the work, but the real importance of a novel is not information; it is the creation of a different, a separate reality. Of course, the author of a novel often uses personal experience, but he transforms it into something different, into something that can be persuasive to readers from different countries, different times, different languages. This transformation that gives a work its independence from the real world, from the sources out of which it was invented or created, is what makes a work a novel.
Thus in working on The Green House I finally accepted the evidence at hand: I lacked the capability necessary to present the world, the abject injustices, and the other men through the eyes and the consciousness of this man whose language, customs, and beliefs escaped me. Having no choice but to reduce Jum's importance in the novel, I broke his story up into several short episodes that would be narrated, not from his point of view, but from the perspective of intermediaries and witnesses whom I could perceive much better.
The points of contact between Piura and Santa María de Nieva were, according to the plan I had for the book, Sergeant Lituma, a Mangache from Piura, assigned for a time to a military post in the jungle and later back in Piura; and Bonifacia, an Aguaruna girl educated by the nuns of Santa María de Nieva, who first becomes Sergeant Lituma's mistress, and then a prostitute of the green house with the professional name of the Jungle Lady. Suddenly, as I was polishing up the manuscript, I discovered that there was another connection, less evident but perhaps more profound, and in any case unexpected, between these two worlds.
Don Anselmo had always surprised the Piurans with his predilection for the color green; he had painted the brothel and even his harp that color. Besides had not his way of talking surprised the Piurans at first just as much? And they never managed to identify that peculiar accent of his that was neither from the coast nor from the Andes. It was one of those magical impacts that survive from time to time during the construction of a novel and which leave one amazed and happy. There was no doubt that Anselmo loved the color green because it was the color of his land. The Piurans had not been able to recognize his manner of speaking because people from the jungle never made it to Piura.
When I finished the novel in 1964, I felt unsure about myself and anxious about the book. The chapters situated in Santa María de Nieva displeased me the most. Of course, my intention had not been to write a sociological document. But I had the nagging feeling that in spite of all my efforts, I had idealized the environment and the life of the Amazon region. I decided not to publish the book until I could return to the jungle. That year I returned to Lima. This time it was not easy to reach Santa María de Nieva because of the lack of communication. Six years before I had traveled to the jungle in the Summer Institute's hydroplane. This time I traveled on my own, accompanied by a friend, an anthropologist who had been a member of the first expedition.
At first glance, hardly anything had changed in those six years; time seems not to have gone by. The authorities, the missionaries, the nuns, and the problems were the same. The rubber-and-hide business must have been even more mediocre than before because the patrones, the same ones who had tortured Jum and punished Urakusa, were living half-dead of hunger, almost as abandoned and miserable as the Aguarunas. We stayed at the mission and saw that, at least with respect to the system of getting pupils, some things had changed. The mission's problem now was its lack of space and teachers. It lacked room to receive all the girls who arrived from the tribes. Apparently, the natives' distrust and hostility toward the mission had ended, and now they insisted that their children be Christianized.
But the problem of what happens to the students once they leave the Mission is the same: either they return to the jungle and starve to death or enter into "civilization" as servants of the Christians. I remember as something phantasmagoric the night my friend and I spent in the cabin of one of the regional patrones (perhaps Arévalo Benzas or Julio Reátegui) drinking warm beer and listening to those poor devils tell us, like a humorous anecdote from the past, the tragic story of Jum. My friend and I had steered the conversation very cautiously toward that subject, but our caution was needless. With supreme naturalness, as obliging as could be, they told us everything we wanted to know, each one cutting in on the other. Their version was not different from the one we had heard six years earlier in Urakusa. They never lied nor tried to hide what had happened nor justify themselves. The only difference was that for this handful of men there was nothing incriminating about it; that is the way things were, life was just like that.
Jum was still the mayor of the village of Urakusa, and there was no way to make him remember that dark episode from his past. Besides, he gave us the impression that he felt ashamed and guilty about what had happened to him. For him and his people life had recovered its atrocious normality. They still collected hides and rubber in the forest for the same patrones, and their relationship with them was certainly good.
Tushía, however, had just died on his remote island in the Santiago River. Some weeks before his death, he had sent a letter, which a Jesuit showed us, to the Mission of Santa María de Nieva. I experienced an extraordinary emotion as I tried to decipher that maniacal letter scrawled in an almost incomprehensible language in which Tushía, feeling that he was about to die, asked the nuns to absolve him. He explained that he felt ill, that he was in no condition to be moved to the mission. He examined his own conscience, he confessed he was a sinner, and he claimed absolution by correspondence. Besides, he wanted them to marry him by mail. The most memorable part of that testament was that which dealt with the description of the girl, or woman, on his island he wished to marry so that there would be no confusion. In my novel, Fushía would die of leprosy. Tushía had died of something at least as spectacular — smallpox.
On returning to Paris, I made a few changes, fewer than I had feared, and the book was published in mid-1966. When it appeared, I was in Lima again trying to write another novel. One day I saw to my surprise that the newspaper La Prensa had published a photograph of the green house, taken sometime ago by the journalist Elsa Arana Freyre. No longer was it the rustic little house that I remembered. It had grown and was now a modern, functional, two-story house with a luxurious garden and no longer located in the desert. The city had grown, and the green house was surrounded by other houses instead of sand dunes.
Not long afterward, I received an invitation to go to Piura. Some old classmates of mine had organized an elaborate program consisting of a lecture, a visit to the San Miguel School, and naturally a commemorative dinner at the green house. But this is of course the beginning of another story and another novel.
Notes
[1] Members of the Jívaro group of Amazon Indian tribes.
[2] The Shapras and the Shipibos are also Amazon Indian tribes belonging to the Jívaro group.
[3] The seeds of this tree are pounded into a red paste used as a dye.
[4] A plant akin to the yucca from which a dye is made.
[5] A fermented drink made from corn or from the yucca or manioc plant.
[6] Gérard Philipe (1922–1959). One of France's most popular and most versatile actors.
[7] Churres: grime, filth, anything greasy. Piajenos: donkeys. Guás: interjection expressing fear or surprise.
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