The Great Black Hope
In the trough of the Wilson years, and during the rest of the British seventies, there remained one major source of optimism for anyone pondering the country's prospects. It was an economic opportunity, closely related to the economic calamity that had finally sunk Heath and which threatened to sink his successors. It involved oil. This time the fossil fuel was not buried under distant Middle Eastern deserts and available to Britain only on terms dictated by increasingly unfriendly Arab politicians; it was beneath a cold sea much closer to home, some of which was under Britain's direct control. Any government able to take full advantage of this great geological good fortune had a chance of surviving the seventies and, perhaps, even thriving in the decades beyond. But taking advantage of North Sea oil would not prove straightforward.
On the afternoon of 2 November 1975, a special train arranged by BP left King's Cross station in London for Aberdeen. On board were politicians, civil servants and industrialists invited by the company to the official opening of the first oil pipeline to Britain, from the Forties field in the North Sea. The journey did not go as planned. Before the train could reach Scotland, a crane collapsed across the East Coast main line. The train had to be diverted via Carlisle.
In Aberdeen, a Scottish nationalist group called the Tartan Army was threatening to disrupt the inauguration ceremony. Since 1973, there had been successful bomb attacks on overland sections of the Forties oil pipeline, for which the Tartan Army had claimed responsibility. With Harold Wilson, the Queen and Prince Philip due to take part in the official opening, the city was readied for one of the largest deployments in the history of Scottish policing.
But the day of the ceremony dawned blue and perfect. The royal family arrived at Aberdeen station at eleven and were driven west through the city towards Dyce, a booming suburb near the airport. There, on a large area of grass next to a new dual carriageway and BP's new Aberdeen headquarters, a dazzling white marquee had been erected. Its canopy, said to be the biggest ever made, was like some desert mirage in the flinty northern air, an infinity of Arabian swoops and diagonals. Inside the marquee there was a heating system, a lake of red carpet and, up on a pedestal, a towering, angular model of one of the Forties oil rigs. With the light coming through the canopy, and additional stage lights, everything and everyone in the tent, even the tired grey faces of Wilson and his ministers, was lent a clean, futuristic, vaguely uplifting glow. Outside, a crowd of oil workers waved Union Jacks, specially provided for the purpose, as the Queen and Prince Philip drove by. Then their Rolls-Royce came right into the marquee and braked smoothly to a halt, looking suddenly as old-fashioned as a horse-drawn carriage in its new white surroundings.
Wilson addressed the rows of dignitaries, his voice shrunken but faintly triumphant:
It is not often that one can point to a particular current event … and, without the benefit of hindsight, identify it as being of major long-term significance; 'the turning point' beloved of historians and journalists. Today's opening by the Queen of the Forties Field is one such occasion … It can truly be said to mark … the beginning of the end of our dependency on overseas supplies of energy.
Afterwards, in a spotless control room in the BP headquarters, with the Tartan Army nowhere in evidence, the Queen pushed a gold-plated button. A nearby screen began to flash. Along a transparent reconstruction of a section of the pipeline, a black mass began to move, inch by inch.
That evening, despite the chill which the heating had never quite banished, there was a party in the marquee to celebrate. 'It was one of the best parties I ever went to,' remembered a retired BP man I met in Dyce three decades later. 'There was a dance. They did it in style.' He nodded across his back garden towards the grass where the marquee had stood. He had helped put it up. 'Those were the days,' he said with a brightness in his narrow eyes, 'the early oil days, when everything was new.' Then he looked back at the window frame he had been carefully painting when I arrived, at his blocky but lovingly preserved mid-seventies house. He had lived in it ever since then, he said, ever since he had left farming as a young man and first come to Aberdeen to work in oil. Then he cut the reminiscence short and waved his paintbrush. 'Now be quick with your other questions,' he said, Aberdonian curtness returning. 'I've got to do this now because it's going to rain.'
Oil was first extracted on a small scale in Britain by the Romans. In Scotland, a slightly more substantial oil industry was created in the eighteen fifties around the laborious mining and processing of oil shale, or oil-bearing rock. This industry, which preceded by several years the better-known pioneering of the modern oil business in the US, survived until the nineteen sixties. In England, hundreds of oil wells were drilled between the First World War and the fifties, mostly in the Midlands and mostly with limited success. None of this land-based activity had a significant effect on the economy or on most Britons' perceptions of their country's important natural assets. As the post-war Labour politician Nye Bevan put it, Britain was 'a lump of coal, surrounded by fish'.
Then, in 1959, a huge underwater gas field was discovered off the Dutch coast. Since the geology beneath much of the North Sea was thought to be similar, a search for gas began in British waters. In 1965, it was found near the Humber Estuary. Further major British gas finds followed; geologists and oil companies, knowing that gas and oil deposits, formed in similar ways as ancient layers of rock trapped the decayed remains of prehistoric plants and animals, were often located close together, and knowing that oil was the more valuable of the two commodities, began to look for North Sea oil as well. In September 1969, a BP drilling rig chartered by the American Oil Company (Amoco) was prospecting 150 miles east of Aberdeen when it struck oil. 'None of us were prepared,' the on-board geologist Brendon MacKeown told the Scotsman.
We thought we might find some gas or at the most watery oil traces, so I didn't have any stainless-steel containers. I had to clean out an empty pickle jar from the mess hall to collect the sample. It was what we call sweet oil …[A colleague] poured it into an ashtray on his desk and set it alight and it burned well. But unfortunately the heat caused the ashtray to crack and the bloody stuff spilled all over the floor.
Britain's rights over such underwater discoveries had only recently and belatedly been established. In 1964, after more than half a decade of Whitehall inertia, Britain had followed twenty-one other nations and ratified the United Nations Continental Shelf Convention, which permitted countries to explore and exploit natural resources found beyond their immediate coastal seabeds. Where two or more countries bordered the same continental shelf, as in the North Sea, the convention stated that the seabed should be divided by a boundary that followed the midway points between the national coastlines in question. Britain's long eastern seashore, running north to south down one entire side of the North Sea, with large eastward bulges in Norfolk and Scotland and the broad scatter of the Orkney and Shetland islands even further to the north and east, gave it a significant advantage, therefore, over the other nations hoping to secure windfalls from under the North Sea. When the sea was divided into national oil 'sectors', Britain's was by far the biggest in area, a great diamond of seabed and water, its grey surface glittering in good weather, stretching from Dover almost to the Arctic Circle.
For a country whose industrial revolution and long economic supremacy had been due, in large part, to the discovery and exploitation within its borders of another mineral – coal – North Sea oil seemed to offer another momentous opportunity. For a country whose economy, and whose heavy industries and northern territories in particular, had for decades been in seemingly terminal and accelerating decline, this opportunity seemed to have arrived in exactly the right place and at exactly the right time. Britain had long seafaring and engineering traditions; it had a national gift, at least according to its patriotic self-image, for mechanical improvisation and ingenuity; and it had many large ports and shipyards, which were increasingly available for work as much of their old custom disappeared to continental Europe and the Far East. Britain even had, at the start of the North Sea era, an existing industry making oil rigs and oil pipelines for use in other countries' offshore oilfields. Everything seemed in place for an oil boom.
In July 1973, the Labour MP and oil enthusiast Laurance Reed gave a lecture at Heriot-Watt University in Edinburgh, which was published as The Political Consequences of North Sea Oil Discoveries. Speaking before the oil crisis made the deposits vastly more valuable, he predicted: 'North Sea Oil arrives in time to save us from relegation to the third division … The 1980s will be Britain's decade. We shall become one of the most influential of nations.' The oil, he went on, would end Britain's dependence on the US and the Middle East, and it would provide Britain with a new empire, a chance for expansion comparable to the American 'opening of the West'. During the early and mid-seventies, forecasts like Reed's were common. A succession of huge oilfields were discovered in the British sector, estimates of the North Sea's total reserves surged accordingly, and all of this was reported by newspapers in the giddiest language. In the February 1974 election campaign, Wilson declared: 'By 1985 the Labour Secretary of State for Energy will be chairman of OPEC.'
Even Ted Heath in his final weeks in office, hemmed in by the miners, the three-day week and the economic crisis, was often preoccupied by the promise of North Sea oil. 'One thought, "There was a solution to our problems,"' he told me. Naturally, he and the other seventies prime ministers also thought about the windfall in party political terms. 'If we'd won the [February 1974] election,' he continued, his voice even lower and gloomier than usual, 'we'd have got it all.'
The discovery of the oil, and the dramatic economic benefits and rises in tax revenues it was expected to bring, had a profound influence on the British governments between 1970 and 1979: on their reluctance to abandon the old way of doing things; on their strong desire, even by the standard of governments in general, to cling to power. If you were in office when the oil came ashore in decisive quantities, the feeling persisted at Westminster, most of the difficulties and dilemmas of the British crisis might melt away. But when would that liberating moment be? Strikingly, even the boldest North Sea oil advocates of the early seventies tended to talk about the eighties as Britain's promised land. They may have been trying to give their rhetoric a faintly science-fiction glossiness. Or they may have known that getting the oil was going to be a challenge.
The North Sea was, and is, one of the roughest and most unpredictable seas in the world. Weather systems approach it from several directions. Its waters are frigid, deep and murky compared to those in the places where offshore oil drilling was pioneered in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, such as coastal California and the Gulf of Mexico. Its seabed is sandy and shifting. Its tides are large. It is prone to protracted storms, when 100-mile-an-hour winds are quite common and waves are regularly 70 feet tall. It is ringed but not sheltered by land masses, which can cause its currents and tides, as Bryan Cooper and T. F. Gaskell put it in North Sea Oil: The Great Gamble, to 'slop about like the liquid in a tea cup'. At other times, there is a dangerous calm: impenetrable mists descend in minutes and linger for days. In winter, which can last for more than half the year, there are often only a few hours of daylight anyway.
When I arrived at the heliport in Dyce in 2007 to take a flight to an oil rig, it was mid-September and a warm sun was shining, but the first storm of the winter was on its way. In the departure lounge, which was full of heavy-set men in their forties with glum expressions and restlessly bobbing feet, I picked up a discarded newspaper to look at the weather forecast; where the detail for north-east Scotland should have been, there was a carefully torn hole. Elsewhere in the paper there was a report that three men had been killed in uncertain circumstances the previous day, in an accident on a ship supplying North Sea oil rigs.
Before the flight, we put on rubber-sealed 'immersion suits' over our clothes in case the helicopter crashed into the sea. Officially, the suits would insulate you against the waves for a few, potentially crucial minutes; unofficially, one of the rig workers muttered to me as we pulled them on, they were known as 'body bags'. Out on the tarmac, our helicopter looked patched-up and old. After we had boarded, bulkily strapped and squeezed into our seats, earplugs in against the rotor din, it took the ground crew several tries to get the passenger door to close. Then the helicopter was quickly above Aberdeen, tidy and clean in the sunshine, and we headed out to sea.
For a few minutes the water was a benign Mediterranean blue. Then the first clouds came rushing in beneath us. The sea quickly turned steel grey, and the helicopter began to dip and lunge in the headwind. Rain crackled against the windows. The sea turned blue-black and disappeared. It was only mid-afternoon, but outside the helicopter the light was nearly gone. Inside the cold, draughty passenger cabin, no one spoke; most of the oilmen, veterans of hundreds of flights like this, sat with their heads in paperbacks or their eyes tight closed. After an hour and a half, the pilot spoke over the intercom: the weather at the rig was only 'fifty-fifty', he said; if he could not manage a landing, we would be flying straight back to Aberdeen. For another hour we battered through the clouds, then a ragged hole opened up in them below us, there was the tiny flame of a rig's gas flare in the murk, and the helicopter dropped erratically towards the waves.
Down on the rig's helipad, the wind was almost enough to flatten me. The air was wet and raw. Beyond the edge of the helipad, which had no parapet, heaving inky waves seemed to be advancing towards the rig from all directions. Otherwise, the horizons were empty, alien as a moonscape. Steep metal-mesh steps led down from the helipad to the main deck; through them I could see more waves, spitting and clawing at the legs of the rig a hundred feet below. I walked unsteadily down. When I finally stepped into the fuggy refuge of the rig's recreation room for the welcome briefing, I noticed there was only one tiny window with a sea view, and that all the chairs were turned away from it. 'The sea's up quite a bit tonight, then Tuesday through Thursday,' the man giving the briefing mentioned in passing. 'Waves of five to eight or nine metres.'
The North Sea has been familiar to trawlermen for centuries; but in the late sixties and early seventies little was known about how the far larger and less nimble vessels required for extracting oil, and the great numbers of non-seafarers involved, would cope with prolonged exposure to this unrelenting world. Oil rigs, unlike ships, could not head for the nearest port when the weather turned too perilous. The only fixed man-made structures already in the North Sea oilfields, underwater telegraph cables, had been known to shift half a mile in a storm. On 27 December 1965, there was a grim early example of the hazards Britain's new offshore industry was likely to encounter. Forty miles out to sea, the BP gas-drilling rig Sea Gem, a crudely converted barge, suddenly suffered the collapse of two of its supporting legs. The rig capsized and sank, throwing many of its crew into the water. Thirteen men died. Only the lucky presence of a cargo ship nearby ensured the toll was not greater.
To draw oil up through thousands of feet of rock and seawater; to pump it ashore via hundreds of miles of under-sea pipeline; and to do it in such a hostile environment, on a mass scale, for decades to come – all this required the invention and production of a whole new range of technologies, from giant semi-submersible rigs to tiny underwater cameras. During the early seventies, not enough British companies were able or willing to seize the opportunity, and much of this technology had to be imported. Professor Alex Kemp of Aberdeen University, a leading authority on North Sea oil since the beginning, told me: 'Bits of equipment were flown here straight from Texas to save time.'
Yet as the decade went on, British businesses started to catch up. Between 1976 and 1979, a quarter of all the country's manufacturing investment was North Sea-related. In effect, a new heavy industry was being created – after a long period when such enterprises had been increasingly thought of as doomed Victorian relics. Patriotic comparisons began to be made between the equipping of the oilfields and the American space programme. 'We flew over various pipe-laying barges etc,' recorded the usually downbeat Ronald McIntosh in his diary on 23 May 1975. 'The scale of the North Sea operations is very impressive and cheers me up every time I see it.'
One area of particular official pride, which was at least partly justified, was the design and assembly of the biggest, most expensive items of offshore equipment of all: the production platforms. These blunted Eiffel Towers of metal plate and mesh, as tall as skyscrapers and as heavy as Second World War battleships, were best suited to local fabrication, since they had to be towed into position in the oilfields. But they were too bulky to be built in a conventional dockyard. Dockyards would have to be built for them, ideally as close to the North Sea as possible. The first to open was at Nigg, a waterfront hamlet just inside the mouth of the Cromarty Firth in the Scottish Highlands. In November 2004, I went to see it.
Driving north-east from Inverness, past white farmhouses, sloping cornfields and the glassy waters of the Firth, it was hard at first to imagine Nigg as an industrial centre of great significance. But as elsewhere in the Highlands, the silence and emptiness hid a lot of history. During both world wars, Nigg Bay had been an important Royal Navy anchorage. There were major military encampments in the area for decades before and afterwards. An aluminium smelter had been erected in 1970.
When the Nigg dry dock was completed in 1972, 1,000 feet long by 600 feet across – 'the biggest hole in Europe', according to The Architectural Review – another sudden local boom came with it. 'I used to travel this road to work at the yard at 3 a.m.,' my taxi driver told me. 'There were hundreds of other cars on it. Now you hardly see one.' He was in his late forties, with a moustache, long hair and slightly melancholy eyes. Seventies-style, he wore faded jeans that matched a short denim jacket. He was from Invergordon, an old navy town a few miles west of Nigg, he said. But in the seventies, 'There were a lot of Geordie boys up here. Even lads from the south of England. The wages in the yard were probably double the ones for other local jobs. It was good work. You wore earplugs and it was cold, especially when it was snowing. But you were kept so busy, you didn't feel it much.'
Across the Firth, a great windowless pale cube of a building – the old welding shed – drew nearer. But just before we reached it, we turned into a huge car park, empty except for a few cars in the corners. 'You used to be fighting for a space in this car park,' said the taxi driver. Now it was used by a couple of dozen workers making wind turbines in the welding shed; the rest of the dock complex was shut.
I got out and walked across the car park in the low sun. Moss was thickening against the kerbs of the parking spaces. At the far end, there was a pair of rusted gates and, past them, a stretch of waste ground scattered with rusted rig parts like the spines of dinosaurs. Beyond the waste ground stood the stump of a decapitated crane, the cube-shaped building and a distant rectangle of dark water flanked by long stiff fingers of concrete: the dock itself.
In the seventies, the dock was operated by Highland Fabricators, a subsidiary of the American conglomerate Halliburton. But in the Highlands and Whitehall it was regarded, nevertheless, as a kind of British miracle. Workers moved from the dying Glasgow shipyards to take jobs there, and Greek cruise ships had to be hired and moored in the Firth so that they had somewhere to live. The country roads around Nigg had to be regularly closed by police so that deliveries of rig components could be squeezed along them. The largest parts had to be floated in via the Firth. And all the while the yard built rigs: twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week. On 10 May 1974, Ronald McIntosh visited:
… [We] picked up a small helicopter for Nigg Bay … [The pilot] said that if you were prepared to work hard, the opportunities in north-east Scotland were unlimited now. I can quite believe this – you get a most exhilarating feeling of growth and expansion wherever you go here… At Nigg Bay … we were then shown the most impressive piece of ironmongery I have ever seen – the production platform they are building for BP for use in the Forties field. It is built on its side on the top of an enormous raft at the bottom of the biggest dry dock in the world. When it is finished they will fill the dock with water and float [the rig] out to the site, where they will fill one side with water until it is vertical. They will then fix it to the seabed … Special paints … are supposed to give it a life of twenty-five years.
When I got back into the taxi, the driver nodded at the remains of the dock in the distance. 'You can get two rigs in there, easy,' he said, slipping into the present tense. 'There were two rigs when I was there. Effortless.'
He offered to drive up the steep hill behind Nigg so that we could get a better look. Just below the crest, he switched off the engine. A cold wind rocked the gorse bushes outside and crept in through the car windows. We looked down at the dock in the sunshine. With its quaysides fully visible and its sheds as big as aircraft hangars, it seemed almost the size of a town. 'You can't really comprehend the size of that dock,' said the taxi driver. 'It was huge when you were in it.' But the dock was empty now except for water and rubble. The driver sighed, and rested his chin on a clenched fist. 'There's nothing here now. The yard closed two years ago. They tried for an aircraft-carrier contract last year, but they didn't get it. The smelter closed in '79. It's just call centres around here now. I know a lot of boys in the call centres who are trained welders. They need Nigg to reopen.'
The energies North Sea oil awakened in Scotland were not, however, simply economic. There were also political consequences. These would prove more problematic for the British government.
The Scottish National Party (SNP) was created in 1934. Its early membership was an uneasy coalition of left-wing and right-wing nationalists, of advocates of devolution for Scotland and advocates of full independence. The new party, moreover, had been founded at an unsuitable moment. With the Depression still lingering across northern Britain and authoritarian nationalism on the rise across Europe, to most voters the SNP seemed at best an irrelevance and at worst – the party had a fascist fringe – a politically toxic development. During the Second World War and the immediate post-war period, little changed. The SNP switched jumpily between tactics, endured splits, made sometimes crude attacks on the English, and won a single parliamentary seat at a by-election in 1945, which it lost again within months. At the 1959 general election, the party attracted 0.5 per cent of the Scottish vote.
Then it found momentum. During the sixties, the Scottish economy showed signs of underlying decay – whole streets of factories shutting, industrial towns expiring – sooner than the English. The Conservative Party, which had seemed negligent about this issue when it was in government, began steadily to lose credibility and support in Scotland. Meanwhile, Labour turned against the idea of devolution. More political space had opened up for Scottish nationalism. The SNP improved its fund-raising, broadened its party organization and curbed its wilder policies and members. At the 1964 general election it almost quintupled its vote, to 2.4 per cent. In 1966, it won 5 per cent. In 1970, 11.4 per cent. Labour and the Conservatives were alarmed by the trend and made concessions – in 1968, Heath announced his party supported Scottish devolution; in 1969, Wilson set up a Royal Commission to investigate the question – which further legitimized the idea of self-rule without actually satisfying the desire for it.
One major obstacle to independence, however, was the doubt surrounding Scotland's ability to sustain its own economy and its own acceptable level of government spending. The SNP had maintained for decades that both were quite possible, but during the late sixties the Wilson government and less biased British academics published evidence that Scotland was, in fact, heavily dependent on the rest of the UK. Then came North Sea oil. Its discovery gave the SNP a highly effective new argument. Most of the oilfields were off the coast of Scotland; if the country left the Union, the argument went, it alone would get most of the oil benefits. Scotland would no longer be one of the rustiest corners of a corroding UK; it would be a modern, rising nation, 'the most prosperous country in Europe', as the most ambitious SNP propaganda put it.
From 1971, the party put increasing emphasis on the oil issue at elections. From a memorable core slogan – 'It's Scotland's Oil' – populist promises poured out like so much North Sea crude: 'How would you like your granny's pension doubled? With £825 million every year from Scotland's Oil, self-government will pay.' The quadrupling of the world oil price during 1973 and 1974 massively amplified the appeal of the SNP's strong, graphic leaflets. In the February 1974 general election, the party's share of the vote in Scotland doubled again, to 21.9 per cent. In the October election, it reached 30.4 per cent, well ahead of the Conservatives and not far behind Labour.
The rise of the SNP, like the simultaneous revival of the Liberals, was both a cause and a symptom of the beginning of the end for the old post-war British politics, with its incrementally shifting ideas and predictable domination by two parties. More immediately, the SNP now had eleven parliamentary seats, at a time when the government had a majority of only three. Given the usual pattern of modern by-elections, this majority was unlikely to last long. Sooner or later, the Labour administration would be negotiating with the SNP for its survival.
'The Scots have really got us over a barrel here,' commented Peter Mountfield, a senior Treasury civil servant, in a confidential memo about North Sea oil in April 1974. There was a 'plausible case', a colleague wrote, 'for arguing that [the oil] is Scottish'. Mountfield concluded: 'An independent Scotland can go it alone.' During the mid-seventies, the SNP began to behave in some ways as if that situation had already come to pass. It established informal relations with OPEC and with Norway, the other main country with North Sea oil. It became friendly with the US consul in Edinburgh, a wily conservative called Richard Funkhouser, who saw Scottish nationalism as an understandable equivalent to the American 'states' rights' movement and wanted to reduce America's dependence on the Middle East by seeing North Sea oil extracted as fast as possible, whatever the means. The SNP also quietly secured allies and converts in the Aberdeen oil companies and in the Edinburgh banks that were thriving by financing them. In 1975, the party bought an expensive headquarters building in North Charlotte Street in Edinburgh's New Town, a quick walk from the traditional hub of Scottish banking in Charlotte Square.
A North Sea oil bonanza and Scottish self-rule, it seemed, were twin inevitabilities. In October 1973, a few weeks after the world crude price began to leap, the Royal Commission on Scottish devolution and other constitutional questions which Wilson had set up four years earlier finally reported. It supported the establishment of a Scottish parliament. In 1975, the proposed powers of the assembly were published in a White Paper, together with details of where it would be housed: in a handsome former school building with broad stone steps and neo-classical columns which stood, appropriately enough, on the same prominent Edinburgh hillside as the American consulate. The SNP continued to call for full independence but tacitly accepted the parliament as a stepping stone by arguing that the assembly should be granted more powers. In 1976, legislation for Scottish and Welsh devolution was presented to the Commons with Labour and SNP support.
Yet, in the British seventies, little in politics or economics – perhaps even less than usual – was inevitable. As the rest of the decade would demonstrate, it was one thing to generate excitement and support for dramatic solutions to national decline such as devolution and North Sea oil; it was quite another to turn them into practical realities. For all the excitement about oil in North Charlotte Street, Downing Street and Fleet Street, for all the frenzied North Sea activity in Nigg and Aberdeen and elsewhere in the Scottish north-east, it was well into 1975, almost five years after the discovery of the first oilfield, that the crude actually started coming ashore. That year, British production was a tiny 34,000 barrels a day. In 1976, it was still insignificant – 253,000 barrels a day – compared to the major oil nations and to Britain's oil needs. It remained relatively small in 1977 – 792,000 barrels – and in 1978 – 1,119,000 barrels. It was not until 1979 that the output of the North Sea approached the level that it has maintained since, and it was not until 1985 that Britain's oilfields reached their first production peak.
By the oil-industry standards of the day, the whole process was impressively quick. Offshore drilling operations in difficult locations, when they were undertaken at all, often take decades to become properly productive. Yet for the often beleaguered and jittery governments of the seventies, the state of progress in the North Sea could be a torment. Even on the new frontier of the British economy, the country's old economic problems could not be easily escaped. Inflation in particular hugely swelled the cost of getting the oil. BP anticipated spending between £300 million and £350 million bringing the Forties field into full production, but spent £800 million. Meanwhile, the amount of foreign equipment imported for use in the North Sea meant that the offshore industry did not, as expected, reduce Britain's trade deficit – it increased it. Between 1974 and 1978, Healey writes in his memoirs, 'We were getting little benefit from North Sea oil. The capital investment required made it a net drain on our balance of payments … Even in 1978, North Sea oil was making good only half the impact of the [1973–4] OPEC price increase on our balance of payments, and was not yet producing any real revenue for the Government.'
During the sixties and early seventies, Conservative and Labour governments alike had rushed to parcel up the British sector of the North Sea into small rectangular 'blocks' attractive to oil companies. Licences to explore and extract oil from these subdivisions were – rather astonishingly, in retrospect – given away, except for a single auction under Heath which showed what a less panicky policy might have yielded: Shell and Esso were prepared to bid £21 million for a single block which turned out to contain no oil at all. The tax regime imposed on the North Sea oil companies by Whitehall was, at first, just as naive and generous: the conglomerates were allowed to reduce their British tax liabilities to almost nothing by combining their profits and losses in the North Sea with their profits and losses in the Middle East. 'Between 1965 and 1973,' the Public Accounts Committee of the House of Commons discovered to its horror in 1973, 'the oil majors' corporation tax liability in the UK was £500,000.'
Through the Scottish oil-shale industry, through BP and through the Anglo-Dutch conglomerate Shell, Britain had been heavily involved in the oil industry since the beginning. Yet by the early seventies, after decades of cheap Middle Eastern fuel and seemingly more pressing domestic issues, there were few British politicians who knew much about oil: the diminishing but politically charged business of coal mining was of much more interest. After the oil crisis, and as the scale of the North Sea's potential became obvious, this fog of ignorance started to lift. In 1974, Wilson appointed as a junior energy minister Thomas Balogh, a left-wing economist critical of the oil companies and of Whitehall's lenient treatment of them in the North Sea. In November, legislation was successfully introduced to tax their North Sea profits at 45 per cent. From a low base, the contribution of North Sea oil revenues to the government's income began to climb steeply: 0.3 per cent in 1976–7, 0.6 per cent in 1977–8, 1 per cent in 1978–9. By the North Sea's mid-eighties peak, a full tenth – and arguably a politically decisive tenth – of national tax receipts would be coming from its unlovely metal archipelago.
For a time in the second half of the seventies the Labour left's hopes for the oilfields moved beyond the purely fiscal: they also wanted to bring them under effective British government control. The chief architect of this ambitious strategy was a well-known Labour maverick who would quickly become even more unpopular than Balogh with the North Sea multinationals: Tony Benn. When Wilson made him energy secretary in 1975, the position may have been intended as a demotion – and may have been widely seen as a political dead end – but Benn, typically, acted as if it was the opposite. Still pursuing his enthusiasm for state intervention in the most important areas of British business, he proposed the partial nationalization of the North Sea. The oil companies, he envisaged, would work as contractors for the state-owned British National Oil Corporation (BNOC) in return for access to the North Sea's increasingly valuable deposits. Unfortunately for Benn, most of the Cabinet did not share his confidence that the particularly footloose and hard-nosed element of international capitalism that was the oil industry could be made the servant of British socialism. His colleagues' fears proved accurate. The multinationals responded to Benn's plan by threatening to hold back their North Sea operations, and his scheme was scaled down to a few measures – such as BNOC acquiring the right to buy and then sell on 51 per cent of the local crude – that established the impression of British government control of the oil territory but little more.
In 1978, another grand Benn scheme for the North Sea also sank with little trace. This time he proposed that the growing tax revenues from the oilfields should be put into a national Oil Fund and used to revive Britain's struggling onshore heavy industries. The Norwegian government was already pursuing a version of this strategy, husbanding its oil money in a kind of national deposit account for the decades to come. But Benn's idea was again rejected by the Cabinet. The state's immediate fiscal needs were too urgent, it was widely felt, for Britain to be able to afford such a policy. Instead, the great North Sea windfall would continue to be treated as an ordinary source of Whitehall revenue and be swallowed up by the day-to-day needs of hungry governments. Not for quite a time, until after the long British crisis of the seventies and afterwards was over, would it be obvious that this had not been a wise strategy. In 2008, the economist John Hawksworth of the accountants PriceWaterhouseCoopers calculated that, had Britain's tax revenues from North Sea gas and oil been invested rather than spent, they would now be worth £450 billion, and would give the British government control of one of the world's largest sovereign wealth funds.
There was one area of the country heavily involved with North Sea oil, however, that did take this path. The Shetland islands are a thin, shattered diamond of windy seashore and treeless grassland, 150 miles north-east of mainland Scotland and not that much further from Norway and the Arctic Circle. The islands are at the centre of ancient sea routes and fishing grounds, but they do not have a large, natural harbour and are too cold for most agriculture. Before the oil, Shetlanders lived by fishing, crofting, making knitwear and providing a strategic base for the British military in wartime. Prosperity arrived infrequently and did not linger; people often found adequate incomes only by joining the Royal Navy or by leaving Shetland altogether. Between 1901 and 1971, the population of the islands dwindled by almost half.
The discovery of oil nearby changed all this. First came the supply ships for the rigs, boxy and gleaming as tugboats on steroids, moored along new quays beyond the small grey harbour of the islands' small grey capital, Lerwick. Then came the oil industry's planes and helicopters, defying the fog and gales of Sumburgh, Shetland's tiny airport. By April 1979, there were more aircraft movements between Aberdeen and Sumburgh than between London and Paris. But the biggest transformation of the islands – and the one that was politically startling, even by the standards of the British seventies – involved a sea loch north of Lerwick called Sullom Voe.
During the early stages of the North Sea era, in 1971 and 1972, the islands' unusually powerful and far-sighted local authority, the Zetland County Council (soon to be renamed the Shetland Islands Council), worked out that the coming boom could be both a local economic opportunity and a social and environmental catastrophe. The council anticipated, correctly, that the oil companies would need a land mass as close as possible to the new oilfields to bring ashore their pipelines, refine their crude and load it into oil tankers. The council hired professional consultants to look at where the oil industry might best be accommodated. The consultants chose Sullom Voe, at the time little more than a disused base for Royal Navy flying boats. The council bought up land around the loch. Then its chief executive, Ian Clark, went to talk to the oil companies.
Clark was not a Shetlander. He was an unbending evangelical from 'the mainland', as the strongly independent islanders called Scotland. He was also a fearsome negotiator. Unlike Benn, he managed to persuade the oil industry that it needed his cooperation more than vice versa. Then Clark set his terms: only certain oil companies would be allowed to use the proposed oil terminal at Sullom Voe, and they would pay a fee to the council for every barrel that passed through, and another large sum to the council for the 'disturbance' which the construction and operation of the terminal would cause. The companies agreed.
For a local council to make such a deal, and to keep the proceeds, was probably unprecedented. In the House of Commons, where legislation had to be passed to allow the arrangement, the sharp-eyed Scottish Labour MP Tam Dalyell raised objections. 'It seemed to me far more than a fair deal,' he told me in 2002. 'I thought, "If Shetland can do this, then any part of the UK that finds itself suddenly favoured with natural resources can up and out."' But Dalyell was an isolated critic. The British government needed North Sea oil, and North Sea oil, inescapably, gave a new political leverage to the Shetland Islands Council, as it did to the SNP. In 1973, Jo Grimond, Shetland's shrewd MP and the former leader of the Liberal Party, introduced a private member's bill giving the council the powers it needed to make financial arrangements with the oil companies. The bill, despite being strikingly vague in its wording, became law with barely an alteration. In 1975, Richard Funkhouser summarized the saga for his State Department superiors in Washington, with a mixture of incomprehension, exasperation and admiration:
The irony of the North Sea … was that the tyrant which bestrode it was the Shetland County Council, a tiny group of home-spun farmers led by 'Fuehrer' Ian Clark who had reputedly hornswoggled some of the biggest multinationals and most sophisticated leaders in Britain out of terms which would make the Scottish Nationalists pale with envy.
Sullom Voe began receiving oil in 1978, after half a decade of construction work that outdid even the dockyard at Nigg in scale and extravagance. Over 7,000 people were employed on the building site at its busiest, sleeping in whole hillsides of mobile homes and, sometimes, inside sections of unused pipeline. When the terminal was completed, it is still said locally, scores of expensive imported diggers and dumper trucks were simply buried in the ground, because the local economy had no use for them and it was too complicated to ship them out. By the early eighties, the Shetland Islands Council was receiving enough income from Sullom Voe to fund over 80 per cent of its spending.
Two decades later, I visited the islands to see what use had been made of their North Sea millions. The road from Sumburgh airport to Lerwick was swerving and almost deserted, but as smooth and well-maintained as a road in a royal park. On the rocky windswept grass to either side were scattered bungalows. Many of them were large and looked recently built. In their driveways stood equally oversized and new-looking cars. In Lerwick, the buildings were prim Victorian stone, but along the main shopping street almost every second premises was a big branch of a bank.
At the council offices, the chief executive, a cheerful man without a tie called Morgan Goodlad, told me with characteristic Shetland directness that his was the wealthiest local authority in Britain after the City of London. When the oil money had started to come in during the seventies, he explained, the council had set up its own version of the Norwegian national deposit account and Benn's notional Oil Fund: the Shetland Islands Council Charitable Trust. The trust's aims – 'to improve the quality of life for Shetlanders, especially in the areas of social need, leisure, environment and education; to support traditional industries' – were so broadly drawn that they had implications for almost every aspect of the islands' existence. And so it had proved. Since the late seventies, the trust had paid for exemplary school buildings, generous subsidies to Shetland businesses, superbly equipped leisure centres and care centres for the elderly with five beds and six times as many staff – a whole self-contained world, barely known about in the rest of Britain, of lavish public provision and public expectation. 'The pressure comes up through our councillors for a new marina, a new village hall,' said Goodlad, trying to sound put-upon but not quite managing it. 'People think, "The council has so much money …"' Over the previous two years, a falling London stock market had devalued the trust's investments in shares by over a third, but it could still afford to give every Shetland pensioner a £262 Christmas bonus.
After the interview, I started off for Sullom Voe. On the outskirts of Lerwick, I spotted a modern-looking leisure centre. Inside, under the glass roof, the relentless Shetland wind was banished. The air was like a still, warm bath. A couple of people were bobbing in the pool; otherwise, on a weekday lunchtime, there was no one to enjoy the water slides and the well-fed palms and the expanses of spotless tiling. To my mainlander's eye, which had become accustomed to worn and crowded public amenities during the eighties and nineties, it all seemed disturbingly extravagant and deliciously utopian. I drove on. Again the road was immaculately surfaced and nearly empty. Every time I passed a cluster of bungalows big enough to be called a hamlet, there towered over them a school or a village hall or another leisure centre in a recent architectural style. Quite often builders were at work erecting more.
It was not until I reached Sullom Voe that there was any sign that all this might be vulnerable – that Shetland's alternative, more benign version of the British seventies might not continue for ever. On one of the terminal's endless quaysides, a line of council-owned tugboats stood idle. Offshore, the tankers were still queueing, but not as they used to: the annual number visiting Sullom Voe had halved since the peak years of North Sea oil production in the mid-eighties. In the terminal car park, letters were missing from the Sullom Voe sign and no one had bothered to replace them.
A few miles from the terminal, on the side of a steep headland overlooking where one of the North Sea pipelines came ashore, I found several neat rows of abandoned houses. They had been built by the council in the seventies, I learned later from the council's official history of the period, and were '100% oil-related'. The history went on: 'In view of the urgency with which these houses were required, lack of contractors on the islands, and difficult site and working conditions, the completed cost of the houses was … 50% over the cost limit of comparable housing types on the mainland.' Three decades on, their thick walls and chalet-style roofs and skylights with sea views had aged well. But their interiors had been stripped and their occupants were long gone.
I left their overgrown gardens waving in the wind and followed the road further uphill. After a few minutes, the road, which was no longer smooth but uneven and crumbling, veered sharply and ended in a bleak little plateau of tarmac. Facing the tarmac, flanked by nothing but miles of cold grass, was a great boarded-up hulk like a derelict supermarket. It was an old council leisure centre. In the seventies, Rod Stewart, that grainy-voiced cheerleader for boozy good times, had played a legendary concert in it for the Sullom Voe workers. Now, a local farmer used it to shelter his animals. I tried to find a way in, but all I found was boarded-up doorways and frightened sheep.
When I got back to Lerwick that evening, I thought about North Sea oil, about how its golden era was generally considered to be coming to an end, and about how Shetland might be affected. Then something Morgan Goodlad had said came back to me. I had asked him whether it had been wise for the council, given the volatility of its stock-exchange investments and the finiteness of the oil, to keep on spending quite so generously. 'The money', Goodlad had replied with a twinkle, nodding at the miniature Scandinavia outside his office windows, 'may have been well spent while it lasted.'
Elsewhere in Britain during the seventies, North Sea oil set in motion less gentle social and political experiments. Aberdeen, an old trading city of shipyards, paper mills and universities, famous for its plain granite streets and care with money, became a brash new oil town of overpriced taxis and binges by off-duty rig workers. Oil-company headquarters, like concrete and glass castles, occupied the hilltops in the richest suburbs. Those suburbs quickly got richer: in the seventies, house prices in Aberdeen rose by 50 per cent more than the national average, and the city created more jobs than any comparable place in Britain.
Oil fuelled a striking local appetite for electric gates and indoor shopping centres, for all-you-can-eat buffets and double garages, for a touch of Texas. Actual American oilmen – by 1976 there were 5,000 Americans in a city of 185,000 – bought or rented big Victorian villas in the villages along the River Dee west of Aberdeen. In 1973, they established the North Sea Petroleum Club in a white hillside lodge with a beech-lined drive. 'It was stetsons and cowboy boots at first,' the manager told me when I visited. The private dining club became a country club, with tennis courts and a car park full of Range Rovers and Porsches. The city became infamous for its traffic and impatient drivers.
This more jostling, more brazen Aberdeen gave a taste of how the more productive parts of Britain might turn out when, or if, the national economy turned around. But it was beyond the city's eastern horizon, far out to sea on the oil rigs themselves, that the starkest vision of a new competitive Britain was laid out.
Life on a rig is about work. Even when I visited one in 2007, thirty years after the North Sea's seventies gold rush, the routine was still all-encompassing and driven. Employees are aboard for between a week and a month at a time, and cannot leave, barring serious injury or illness, until their stint is done. They work twelve-hour shifts, starting at dawn or at dusk. There are no holidays on board, not even Christmas, and no days off. Between shifts, workers eat double portions of fat and starch in the mess hall. They try to sleep in tiny shared cabins. They watch television in the recreation room as the rig tannoys blast. But mostly they think about the job in hand. 'They finish their twelve hours,' a mess-hall steward on the rig told me, 'and all they do is talk about what they've done in their twelve hours.'
Drilling at sea is always expensive. People back onshore – politicians, consumers, oil company executives and shareholders – are always impatient for oil. And a rig is its own world. Even in 2007, the drilling platform I visited, a heaving, clanking maze of soaked decks and narrow corridors, had only one public telephone for a hundred crewmen and no reception for mobiles. Helicopters arrived at best once a day or, if the fog came down, not at all. When the weather lifted, another rig was just visible in the far distance. Otherwise, the outside world was nothing but the dark waves. 'People only really talk about the rig,' the steward told me. 'Not what's beyond.'
In the British sector of the North Sea during the seventies, a radically different balance of power between bosses and workers was established to what existed onshore. 'Industrial troubles have been rare,' wrote Leith McGrandle in his slightly rose-tinted 1975 book The Story of North Sea Oil. 'Casual signings-on [of workers] … have made union organization difficult… The Americans in the past have occasionally sacked a whole crew if they sniffed trouble ahead. This is one reason why there has only been one strike in the last four years.' A large proportion of oil-rig workers did relentlessly physical, relatively unskilled work for wages that were substantially better than on dry land. They were hired on short-term, insecure contracts. Often, they had been unemployed or in the armed services, or had left jobs as mechanics or farm labourers. They came from all over Britain, but particularly from depressed areas. Just as, in the following decade, Norman Tebbit would suggest the jobless should, they had 'got on their bikes' to find work.
Sometimes potential rig workers were scrutinized for their political views before being taken on. 'We are interested in identifying overt opponents of the system,' admitted Shell's personnel director Peter Linklater in 1978. 'The last thing we would want to do is to have political subversives on our payroll.' The screening was not always perfect. 'Before I went offshore I was on the executive committee of the Young Communist League,' remembered Chris Ramsey, a former oil man I met in 2004 who had first worked in the North Sea in 1977.
But on the rigs, where there were no daily newspapers and at first not even any television, he had had to accept he was in a different world: 'I used to keep my mouth shut. I covered stuff for the Morning Star using a false name. Everyone was working too hard, because of the American management. Safety was really bad – there was a diver killed every month then – but you wouldn't try a union offshore. Everyone was looking after themselves.'
In the Norwegian sector, the shop-floor culture was different. Oil platforms were unionized from the beginning. Some workers on British rigs have cast envious glances there ever since. 'The Norwegians have got it sussed,' said the engineer I shared a cabin with on my rig visit, as he sat hollow-eyed on his bunk after his night shift. 'Strong unions. Two weeks on, four weeks off, for everyone – not two weeks on, two weeks off, like us.' He shook his head and managed a weak, admiring smile: 'And now their unions are pushing for the next week off.'
But in the seventies, the British sector of the North Sea had no time for such old-fashioned industrial relations. The oil still did not flow quickly enough to save the decade's governments. Instead, the rigs acted as a kind of Trojan horse for a new, more right-wing version of workplace politics. Chris Ramsey, for one, detected an irony. 'It all happened when Tony Benn was energy minister!' he said with a bitter laugh. We were walking along the sand at Cruden Bay, north of Aberdeen, where the first oil pipeline of the seventies had reached land. A few hundred feet above our heads, helicopters still rushing to the rigs passed in a near-continuous, throbbing roar. When the next brief pause came, I asked Ramsey how long he had worked in the North Sea. Young Communist or not, he had stuck it out, he said, for thirteen years.
9
The Real Sixties
It is one of the conventional wisdoms about the seventies that the decade was a time when the rebellious energies of the sixties cooled and dissipated. In Britain and across the West, there is evidence for this view: in the shrinking, fragmenting underground press of the early seventies; in the frustration of the radical hopes expressed by the student uprisings of 1968; in the election victories of conservatives like Edward Heath and Richard Nixon; in the institutionalization of rock music and other sixties youth cultures; and in the retreat of many of those who would not be co-opted into introspection, or self-defeating factionalism, or the political and moral cul-de-sacs of terrorism. 'The time for play had passed,' writes Elizabeth Nelson about the early seventies in her book The British Counter-Culture 1966–73. Many other observers, both during the seventies and since, have competed to identify similar watersheds: phases or precise moments in the decade when, to take the most commonly used metaphor, the great party of the sixties ended and the hangover set in.
This liberal or left-wing melancholy about the seventies has, in many ways, been the mirror image of the doomy right-wing view of the same period. These different visions of national decline have complemented and given credibility to each other. They have helped ensure that the British seventies have not been widely mourned since their passing. And yet, both perspectives on the decade have always been dimmed by blind spots. The anti-seventies left, as you could call it, has a particularly large one. It fails to acknowledge that for many politicized Britons, the decade was not the hangover after the sixties; it was when the great sixties party actually got started.
Near the foot of Highbury Fields in north London, where the handsome terraces facing trees and bushes begin to give way to office blocks and traffic, there is a small bronze commemorative plaque. Unlike those nearby for the eminent Victorians Joseph Chamberlain and Walter Sickert, it is not blue or green but matt black. It does not hang on a tall Georgian townhouse but on a low ungainly building, blank-looking and detached – a small set of offices, sometimes vacant with unopened post on the doormat – that was once a public toilet. And the plaque does not celebrate a long historical association but a single, relatively recent evening. In gold capital letters its inscription reads:
The first gay rights demonstration
in Britain took place here,
in Highbury Fields, on
27th November 1970
when 150 members of the
Gay Liberation Front
held a torchlight rally
against police
harassment
Above the inscription there is a political logo: a raised fist and, as if tattooed across it, the words 'Gay Liberation Front', a flower, and a pair of intertwined masculinity and femininity symbols. The plaque went up in 2000. Its manufacture and unveiling, funded by private donations, was recorded by the right-wing tabloids without complaint. Its significance is even explained in the house-buyer's guide to Highbury provided by the website findaproperty. co. uk. The buffed-up borough of Islington, of which Highbury is part, has for years been a popular area for prosperous gay men.
Yet there are things about the plaque – the actual phrase 'Gay Liberation Front', the logo's mixture of stridency and hippy dreaminess – that hint at a political world quite different from the present, and quite different from the seventies as experienced in Whitehall or Downing Street. For those active in this world, in its new politics of identity, individual experience and cultural allegiance rather than class, patriotism and economics, the decade was not a dead end but a maze of possibilities.
When the Highbury demo was suggested, the Gay Liberation Front had been in existence for six weeks. It had been founded in a basement classroom at the LSE by a dozen students and academics. By late November 1970, its membership had mushroomed to over 200 'sisters and brothers', according to its campaigning newspaper Come Together, all of them impatient for a response to the 'hundreds of crimes committed against gay people by the police and the establishment every year'. On the 25th, the GLF held one of its regular and increasingly tumultuous meetings. Stuart Feather was one of those present. 'There was a discussion about having a demonstration,' he told me. 'But people said, "What are we going to have a demonstration about?" A guy suggested we went and demonstrated outside the American embassy against … [the] visa restrictions if you declared you were gay. I thought, "That's up to the American gays to get together." And the guy was, it turned out, very much of that old left, Vietnam, Grosvenor Square generation.' Feather paused. 'The other proposal – it was the only other real suggestion – was to go and protest the arrest of Louis Eakes.'
Sex between men had been decriminalized in England in 1967, in one of the path-breaking social – rather than economic – reforms for which the Wilson government of the sixties would be fondly remembered. But the liberalization of the law had only been partial: it remained illegal for men to have any sexual contact with each other in public. What constituted a public place was broadly defined, and prosecutions were pursued with vigour. Plainclothes policemen were sometimes assigned to favoured gay cruising spots such as Highbury Fields, which was dimly lit at night and had its bushes and public toilet. One autumn evening in 1970, Louis Eakes, who was a well-known Young Liberal, was seen by policemen approaching several men on the Fields and asking them for a light for his cigarette. Eakes denied that he had been looking for sex – he denied that he was even a homosexual – but he was arrested for 'gross indecency'.
Eakes was not a perfect martyr. When Feather heard about his arrest and his denials, 'I immediately thought, "This guy is gay, and he's just trying it on."' A few months later, Eakes would be arrested and convicted after a similar episode in another park. Yet for the Gay Liberation Front, Eakes's reliability and sexuality were beside the point. At 9 o'clock on a Friday evening, '150 beautiful gay people' (Come Together's description) and reporters and photographers from several national newspapers met at Highbury and Islington station. Wearing multicoloured capes, flares and stage costumes, carrying torches, candles and balloons, smoking joints, shouting, chanting and playing musical instruments, the GLF protesters marched into Highbury Fields. At the far end of the park they halted and quietened. The group's demands were read out:
That all discrimination against gay people, male and female … should end … That sex education in schools stop being exclusively heterosexual. That psychiatrists stop treating homosexuality as though it were a problem or sickness … That gay people be legally free to contact other gay people, through newspaper ads, on the street and by any other means … as are heterosexuals … That employers should no longer be allowed to discriminate against anyone on account of their sexual preferences. That the age of consent for gay males be reduced to the same as for straights. That gay people be free to hold hands and kiss in public, as are heterosexuals …
After each demand, the GLF's newspaper recorded, 'We all responded with "Right on!", which echoed round the Fields.' The journalists, the protest's escort of standoffish policemen and a few perplexed passersby – Highbury was still a traditional working-class area – looked on. Then, many of the marchers decided to make one of their demands into a reality on the spot, by kissing and holding hands. There were no arrests, but Come Together reported: 'A brother overheard a bunch of straight, grey reporters describe us as a bunch of "pooves". So we descended on this bunch and demanded a retraction.'
Next, Feather recalled, 'We marched around a bit, and then we all went off into the bushes and lit cigarettes.' Finally, most of the protesters headed to the nearest pub, the Cock – perhaps its proximity was not the only thing in its favour – for a few rushed euphoric drinks in the half hour before closing time. The whole protest had lasted ninety minutes. 'It didn't feel historic,' Feather told me. 'It was just exciting.'
I met him at his flat in Ladbroke Grove in the late summer of 2005. His pretty stucco corner of west London, associated for the last half century with social and political experiments, was steadily succumbing to pastel restaurants and upmarket bathroom shops. But on the fifth floor of Feather's slightly shabby white terrace, a whiff of sixties and seventies bohemianism lingered. Jimi Hendrix had lived in the flat below. Feather had been in his own housing association one-bedroom pad for twenty-six years. It had modular white sixties chairs, an easel in the living room and a mural on the bathroom walls and ceiling. Everything was a little faded, neatly arranged and preserved, museum-ish; not much in the flat seemed to have been bought after 1980.
Feather sat carefully in one of his vintage chairs, lean and crop-haired, wearing a paint-spattered T-shirt, smart shorts and sandals over tanned ankles. He was in his mid-sixties, but his eyes were still strong and blue, his recall of his radical life precise and unsentimental. He had grown up in Yorkshire: 'My dad was a lorry driver, and then he got a fish-and-chip shop.' As a teenager, he wanted to go to art school, but 'that was out of the question … I ended up as an apprentice engineer on a production line in a light engineering factory in York.' At this, Feather's confident, slightly mocking voice dropped and turned more halting: 'That job just got a bit too hairy because it was quite obvious I was gay, and I started getting a lot of, sort of, not aggro so much as … kind of being sent up and sort of pushed out of the way …' In the late sixties, he moved to London. 'I found myself a rather bourgeois life,' he continued, fluency returning. 'I wore Gucci shoes. I had a boyfriend and a job in an employment agency. And a cosy little flat down at World's End in Chelsea. Being gay to me was no longer a big issue. One of the demands of Gay Lib was the right to hold hands in public. Well, I'd been doing that with guys in Chelsea for a long time.'
Then, one day in the autumn of 1970, 'Two friends of mine went shopping down Oxford Street, and they were given a GLF leaflet. We all went along to a GLF meeting. They were the most extraordinary people. I'd never met people like them before. They were mainly young, beautiful and long-haired. I was sort of longhair-ish, but I had no political awareness at all. Here people were really talking about being gay, and how it affected their lives. They saw no point in any kind of parliamentary process for what they were trying to do. Their attitude was, "The government can change the law, they can give us rights – and then take them away. Our aim is to change public opinion, to change people's minds."'
Some of the style and confidence of the early GLF had, like other aspects of the British counter-culture, been imported from America. Gay-liberation groups had formed there first, in the aftermath of the Stonewall riots of 1969, when police raids on a gay bar in New York had for the first time provoked a militant response. In the summer of 1970, founding members of what would soon become the British GLF visited the US and were inspired by the new gay assertiveness they found. In America, they also sensed the potential for pioneering alliances between gay liberation and the era's other radical movements. In August, the Black Panther leader Huey Newton had emphatically included homosexuals in a rhetorical list of 'oppressed people' – and had then gone much further: 'Maybe a homosexual', he had written, 'could be the most revolutionary [of all].'
By 1971, the British GLF had too many members to hold its meetings in borrowed LSE classrooms. Its gatherings moved to Middle Earth, a huge labyrinthine basement in Covent Garden that had been a famous venue for counter-cultural events during the sixties. Up above, Covent Garden was still a fruit-and-vegetable market. When the GLF mounted one of its flamboyant demonstrations nearby, 'There were a few vegetables thrown,' Feather remembered dryly. Yet down in Middle Earth, with its endlessly receding rooms, its ceiling pillars and gloom, the meetings of GLF activists, usually seated in a circle and speaking in excited political slogans and insider-y gay slang, acquired a mystique, a certain fashionability even: celebrity bohemians such as David Hockney, John Lennon and even the Bloomsbury Group survivor Duncan Grant, then eighty-five years old, attended or lent support. 'There was an incredible warmth – you could really say love – between the early GLF people,' Feather recalled. 'Through the process of joining the GLF, by coming out, people were losing their places to live and losing their jobs. But we tried to live the GLF manifesto. And it seemed limitless.'
One aspect of the GLF creed, which was in keeping with the broader mood of the counter-culture, was a slightly woolly but heartfelt anarchism. 'Oppression by the Big State Machine also affects gay people,' Come Together declared in early 1971, echoing Huey Newton, 'And they are as interested in fighting it as are all other groups that suffer from it.' In February, the GLF joined the great London march against Ted Heath's Industrial Relations Bill. Carrying placards that ranged from the sober – 'Homosexuals Oppose the Bill' – to the mildly cheeky – 'Poof to the Bill' – and holding bunches of leaflets attacking homophobic discrimination in the workplace – 'nearly one million trade unionists are homosexual' – a hundred or so GLF activists presented themselves to the demonstration's organizers. They were not made to feel entirely welcome. Since they were not a trade union, and since no one wanted to march with them, the GLF were informed, they would have to stay at the back of the demonstration.
The activists did as they were told, but the novelty of their presence and the noise they made, chanting their way through Piccadilly with their Jesus beards and hippy centre partings, attracted media attention regardless. A cartoon in the London Evening Standard the next day sensed an unease in the trade union establishment about its new allies. A huddle of middle-aged men, heavy-set and with pipes and war medals, are in a union office wallpapered with press cuttings about the size of the demonstration. 'Well,' says one, 'I make it eighty to one hundred and fifty thousand, depending on whether you include the "Gay Liberation Front", or not!' Come Together, typically, was more frank about the march: 'Many, in fact most, of the people on the demo were real male chauvinists … and therefore our enemy. We were there to CONFRONT the male chauvinism of working people.'
During 1971, the GLF's political exhibitionism acquired a bolder edge. 'I and a couple of others introduced the whole concept of drag,' said Feather. 'I saw it as much more direct than wearing a [GLF] badge, much more confrontational. With a badge, people would say, "What's the Gay Liberation Front?", and you would start talking about the concepts, rather than "Why are you wearing a woman's dress?", and then you saying, "Why are you wearing men's clothes?"' Yet with this new boldness – 'Among the drag queens we were really up for questioning … [even] what was gay and what was straight,' Feather remembered – came implications for the GLF membership. Not everyone wanted to wear drag or dismantle all the barriers between sexualities and genders; many of the activists just wanted to get a fair deal for gay men. From late 1971, the GLF's weekly London meetings turned into shouting matches between factions. 'There was a reaction against the drag queens,' Feather admitted. 'It came from the guys who just wanted' – a cutting note of mockery came into his voice – 'a male way of doing things, let us say.'
In 1972, the London meetings ceased. The GLF split into groups based in the north, south and west of the capital. Each group had distinctive characteristics: more working-class in the south, more middle-class and politically conciliatory in the north – where activists set up a late-night coffee stall for men cruising on Hampstead Heath – and most dogmatic and drag-orientated in the west. These groups quickly evolved into communes. The most experimental of these was in Ladbroke Grove.
7a Colville Houses was like thousands of other properties in the area and in neighbouring Notting Hill during the late sixties and early seventies: a big, balconied, once-grand Victorian house, vacant for years as this part of London had grown poorer and more transient, and now perfectly suited to serve the counter-culture's growing appetite for squatting and communal living. 'All that we did in the Colville commune was to take Gay Lib that one step further,' Feather told the oral historian Lisa Power two decades later, 'and say that all men should wear a frock. We thought that it was the answer. It almost was. It still is.' Andrew Lumsden, a sympathetic GLF activist but not a member of 'Colvillia', described visiting the commune to Power in less understated terms:
It was like stepping off the planet. You went into a no-daylight zone where there were places to sleep strewn all over the floor, posters to do with pop groups, endless sounds always on, you were always offered dope or acid. The welcome was lovely. It was unstructured to a degree that was terrifying if you had led any kind of structured life … None of the ordinary ways ofcoping seemed to be there. Somebody might be walking round without their clothes on, somebody else spending hours and hours making up. There was a wardrobe, a very large area for frocks and shoes and make-up and mirrors, people could spend hours in there … Somebody might be making love on one or another mattress, all in this twilight …
In Colvillia during 1972 and 1973, the transgressive games of the sixties, far from being played out, were energetically being taken further. 'The more we learn about each other in the commune, the higher we get: much higher than anything that came after flower power,' announced the Colvillia collective in a special issue of Come Together they produced. When the house was repossessed by the Notting Hill Housing Trust, the commune moved into a disused film studio down the road. The drag queens hung its interior so thickly with drapes that you could not hear the outside world. Money, sexism and maleness, privacy, ideology, personal identity and morality – all were scrutinized by the group and new approaches to them agreed. 'Sharing everything, our material possessions of course, our ideas, our energy, our minds and our bodies,' the collective wrote in Come Together, 'meant that we had to change ourselves … You never really know another person until you live with them. The question is, how much do you want to know? How much are you prepared to show? What are you afraid of hiding?' LSD consumption became close to compulsory. 'The police did come once,' Feather told me, 'but they were so shocked and embarrassed that they kind of retreated out of the door. Goodness knows what the neighbours thought. But we didn't have much contact with them.'
Yet as well as all this experimentation, there were less bohemian impulses in the commune. Many members were on the dole, putting their benefit money into the art deco teapot that served as Colvillia's bank account. But, Feather recalled, 'We [also] used to earn our money by going out on Fridays and Saturdays and buying and selling … a lot of women's clothes, lots of pottery, lots of art deco stuff … We'd doll up in the morning and load everything into prams, and parade down to Portobello market, and run the gauntlet of the stall-holders.' Like the Middle Earth meetings, the drag queens' market stall attracted attention from beyond the usual gay circles. 'I remember selling brooches to Brian Eno,' said Feather, a very white, knowing smile edging across his tanned face. 'He was very nervous of us. He used to sort of eventually negotiate his way to the front of the stall.' The smile faded: 'We also had all these Italian tourists coming up and taking photographs of us. We got really stroppy with them. We chased them down the street, saying, "You fucking bourgeois Italians, what d'you think you're doing? You're taking our photograph, and you're not buying anything off our stall!"'
Colvillia did not last. 'There was one middle-class guy who decided that if he was free, as we all were, to do what he wanted, then he would refuse to sign on [for the dole] any more, or provide any more money … And he had a boyfriend as well who wasn't contributing anything. So the money was beginning to become abused … And then one of the younger ones and this woman started using the money to finance a drugs empire … There was a mad Afghan guy as well, who used to lope around, and he turned out to be a big drug dealer as well … And then we didn't know who was coming into the place and for what reason …' Sitting neatly in his immaculate flat, Feather paused. 'It just became very difficult indeed.'
By 1974, the commune was over, and so was Come Together and the GLF as a whole. Colvillia's two sites were redeveloped. The house was divided into flats by the Notting Hill Housing Trust. When I went to have a look at it after seeing Feather, I found five storeys of drawn net curtains instead of a drag queens' free-for-all. The film studio had also been replaced by social housing for families, for people who liked privacy. Tiny children's chairs warmed in the sunshine in heavily fenced-off back gardens. The tidying away of the old local bohemia had not been without social benefits, but that tidying away had also been very thorough and unsentimental: at neither site was there the slightest vestige of the commune.
Yet Gay Lib did leave traces in Britain. Some were small. 'There were one or two people one knew socially, who weren't involved in Gay Lib, who were suddenly appearing in magazines doing a bit of drag,' Feather recalled. 'And you thought, "That should've been me." I asked him if he still wore drag at all. There was an unusually long pause. 'The drag thing … One still dolls up in drag a bit and goes out, to a party or something.' But he didn't live in drag any more? 'That takes up too much time.'
Other legacies of the movement were more enduring. As well as its stunts and lifestyle experiments, the GLF had done less dramatic work: putting on dances for gay men and lesbians that were high-profile and no longer furtive events; publicizing these and other gay and lesbian happenings in Come Together; prompting the formation of GLF groups outside London, in Leeds, Manchester, Brighton and Birmingham. In July 1972, the feuding London GLF briefly put aside its differences to organize the first Gay Pride march, from Trafalgar Square to Hyde Park. In early 1974, an office the group had rented in the basement of Housmans, a well-known left-wing bookshop near King's Cross, was converted by former GLF activists into the London Gay Switchboard, a free information and legal advice service. By 1975, it had a staff of sixty volunteers and was receiving a thousand calls a week.
Other ex-GLF members stayed in politics. Peter Tatchell had joined within a week of arriving in London from Australia in 1971, after seeing a GLF sticker on a lamp post. During the eighties and nineties, he made himself into Britain's best-known gay activist, in part as a prominent member of OutRage!, which described itself as a 'queer rights direct action group' and retained the old GLF flair for confrontation and theatrical gestures. Angie Weir, an important GLF member later known as Angela Mason, became director of the lesbian and gay lobby group Stonewall and then, in 2002, director of the Labour government's Women and Equality Unit.
The GLF helped establish in modern Britain for the first time a visible, unapologetic and rapidly expanding gay culture. This had its commercial as well as its idealistic side. As even the Colvillia drag queens had discovered with their Portobello market stall, homosexuality could be a commodity as well as a crusade. In the seventies, the most obvious manifestation of this was the success of Gay News. It had been conceived as a 'national homosexual newspaper' in late 1971, at the height of the GLF's ideological civil war. Some of its staff were GLF members, and at first it operated as a collective, as Come Together always did. But Gay News soon signalled its distinctiveness. 'News is not only the bad things that can happen to us,' suggested the first issue's editorial, 'but knowing what others are doing, sharing and achieving. Information …' The second issue demonstrated this more upbeat, less politically radical sensibility by giving over its front cover to contact ads. By Issue 40, Gay News was calling itself 'Europe's Largest Circulation Fortnightly Newspaper for Homosexuals', and carrying listings for gay pubs from Aberdeen to York. By Issue 85, in 1975, the paper was featuring ads for gay shops, gay pin-up calendars, mainstream Hollywood films with gay characters and the 1976 Gay Spring Weekender in Torquay.
'I was against Gay News, the whole idea of it,' said Feather with quiet force. He looked around his austere living room. 'We knew in the GLF that capitalism had the ability to absorb dissidents.' In Britain in the mid-seventies, true equality for gays – indeed, the satisfaction of even the more modest demands bellowed out by the GLF in Highbury Fields – was decades off. But homosexuals, in part thanks to the GLF, were now a recognized market – and a market could be served. It was a sign of the Britain to come.
The other great seventies revolt over gender roles and sexuality proved harder to commodify. Women's Liberation emerged as a movement in Britain less suddenly than Gay Liberation. 'At regular intervals throughout history, women rediscover themselves – their strengths, their capabilities, their political will,' wrote Anna Coote and Beatrix Campbell in their 1982 book Sweet Freedom: The Struggle for Women's Liberation. They prefaced their assertion with quotations from Mary Astell in 1700 – 'If all Men are born free, how is it that all Women are born slaves?' – Mary Wollstonecraft in 1792 – 'Who made man the exclusive judge, if woman partake with him the gift of reason?' – and Christabel Pankhurst in 1902 – 'The great social injustices are the subjection of labour and the subjection of women.'
The next wave of British feminism began to form during the sixties. By then, the fundamental grievances articulated by Astell, Wollstonecraft and Pankhurst had been further sharpened by the contradictions of life for women in post-war Britain. Families were getting smaller. Domestic chores, thanks to new home technologies, were becoming less all-consuming. More women were going to university. More women were working: in 1951, 36 per cent of those between twenty and sixty-four; in 1961, 42 per cent; in 1971, 52 per cent. More women were acquiring the sort of life expectations traditionally held by men. In many ways, these were not being met. Women's pay compared to men's fell between the early fifties and mid-sixties. The welfare state continued to assume that women were primarily carers rather than earners. Employers and trade unions did the same. The laws governing divorce and abortion were liberalized, cheap contraception became available and sexual freedom acceptable, but the greatest beneficiaries of this new permissiveness were men. About other, even more sensitive areas of gender relations, such as domestic violence against women, the reforming politicians of the sixties and counter-culture revolutionaries had little or nothing to say.
The injustice and frustration of the position of women in Britain and comparable countries was expressed, periodically, in brilliant books by foreigners. Simone de Beauvoir's The Second Sex (1949) was a monumental work of scholarship and polemic, written in an intoxicating grand style, about the domination of women through 'patriarchy', the fear and hatred of women that underlay it, and how only the 'liberation' of women could end it. Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique (1963) was more journalistic but equally potent. It was a vivid report, sometimes melancholy, sometimes furious, from 'the comfortable concentration camp' of female domesticity to which even the highly educated middle-class American women that Friedan interviewed had been confined soon after university, and where they acquired dishwashing sores and public personas that seemed 'listless and bored, or frantically "busy"'.
Then, in 1970, two more seminal feminist volumes appeared. Kate Millett's Sexual Politics took on Henry Miller, Norman Mailer and other revered male counter-culture figures and, with slashing literary criticism and bitter humour, showed their supposedly iconoclastic writing to be full of neuroses and bullies' assumptions about sex and women. Germaine Greer's The Female Eunuch was even more revelatory. 'Women', she wrote, 'have very little idea of how much men hate them.' Greer's prose was as quick and concentrated as that of a good tabloid reporter, and effortlessly mixed the raw and demotic – 'tits' – with the analytical and academic. Her book, inspired in part by the rebellions of 1968, called for nothing less than a revolution in female consciousness. Woman must 'recapture her own will'. But Greer had no illusions that it would be easy: 'Take … joy in the struggle … For a long time there may be no perceptible reward … other than new purpose.'
The first British women's groups, in which women shared personal experiences and 'raised' each other's consciousnesses, were established in 1968. As Gay Liberation would, the new political movement initially took its language, ideas and tactics from a precursor in America. And it quickly attained a momentum. The following January, the underground newspaper Black Dwarf declared 1969 the 'Year of the Militant Woman'.
A few weeks later, Marsha Rowe arrived in London from Australia. She was a young magazine journalist from Sydney with high hopes of the British counter-culture. She had grown up in a pretty harbourside suburb, 'not reading books' and with few intellectual or career expectations. 'I was brought up with the idea that it wasn't up to me to go to university.' But then one day, she told me, 'My life changed. I bought Oz magazine on a newsstand.' Oz was a kind of Australian Private Eye which had moved from straightforward serrated satire into the more freeform cultural and political iconoclasm practised by the underground press. Rowe paid for herself to go to university, did some work for Oz and more conventional magazines like Vogue, and joined Sydney's new sixties bohemia. It did not satisfy her for long. By 1969, 'I had explored every bit. I was bored.' Other ambitious and rebellious Australians she knew had moved to London, so she followed them.
'I felt that I was arriving in a city … that was on the cusp of imminent changes, but I didn't know what. Everything did seem to be breaking up … The excitement and general hope of earlier in the sixties had obviously gone … and it was like, "Where's it all going?"' At first she hated the place: 'People were snooty about Australians.' After a brief stay, she fled to Greece for six months. There the military dictatorship – the reign of the 'Greek colonels' – and the brave opposition it provoked politicized her for the first time. 'When I came back to London, I thought, "OK, I've got to be engaged in some way."'
She began working for Oz, which had also moved to London. But it was not the radical experience she had hoped for. 'I did boring secretarial work. It was just assumed that women would. I typed bits of research, but I didn't think I could write at all.' A gust of remembered frustration lifted her soft voice. 'I hated having to be a secretary. But I really did have a sort of idea that maybe women were there to support men. In the counter-culture we still did all that stuff the men didn't. I ended up having all these crazy boyfriends, and I would be doing the boring job to pay for their creativity. You lived your creativity through the man.' And yet that inequality also felt increasingly intolerable. Rowe paused. 'I had very conflicted feelings that I couldn't articulate.'
She left Oz for another London-based radical newspaper, Ink, which had a slightly more considered and earthbound political agenda. Yet the gender imbalance seemed just the same. Despite her experience, she worked in production, not editorial; and when the paper acquired some new office technology, three women she had hired as typists were casually fired by the male editors. 'I could not believe it. I knew what some of these young women had given up. I didn't have any trade union background. So I resigned in protest.'
She had no idea what she would do next. For a few months she worked for a literary agent. Then, in December 1971, she and two other women who had had unhappy periods in the underground press, Louise Ferrier and Michelene Wandor, decided to call a meeting for women who had had similar experiences. It was held in Rowe and Ferrier's basement flat in Notting Hill and fifty people came.
'It was like the lid had been taken off,' Rowe remembered. 'We didn't really stay on the topic of work very long. Almost immediately, it was all about how you did all the shit stuff at home … about how we supported men … There were women who'd had to have children adopted, who'd had to have abortions … It was all about the sexual repression in the so-called liberated sixties. But none of us had ever said any of these things to each other … We didn't have any language to talk about what we wanted to talk about. The concepts weren't there. Sexism wasn't a concept. We just had to find a way by … mentioning experience. This was what consciousness-raising meant. You'd start describing your experience to each other. And then you'd come to an analysis.'
After the meeting, Rowe and Ferrier 'stayed up all night, thinking, "No one will ever speak to us again." That we'd crossed some terrible boundary. We were absolutely terrified, and ecstatic at the same time. It was very strange. And, of course, everybody did speak to us again, and there was another meeting, and another …' At the third gathering, Rowe recalled, 'I said, "I think we should start our own magazine."'
Spare Rib, the debut issue of which was published in July 1972, was not the first British feminist magazine of the era. A loose but rapidly expanding federation of women's groups called the London Women's Liberation Workshop had been producing Shrew, basic-looking and fierce in tone, and originally called Bird and then Harpie's Bizarre, since 1969. Nor was Rowe and Ferrier's meeting in Notting Hill the first significant gathering of the new British women's movement. In February 1970, the inaugural National Women's Liberation Conference had been held at Ruskin College, Oxford, with 400 women hungrily debating, discovering kindred spirits and daubing slogans – 'Sisterhood is powerful!' – across the university and the city beyond. The following November, a hundred feminists disrupted the Miss World contest at the Albert Hall by throwing flour bombs at the stage. The following March, the first demonstrations for women's rights took place in London and Liverpool, with men and children among the marchers and snow swirling around the banners calling for equal pay and free twenty-four-hour nurseries.
The early movement had elements in common with the Gay Liberation Front, with whom the feminists sometimes closely collaborated: it was theatrical, ambitious and sometimes utopian in its demands, effective in its guerrilla tactics, relatively small in scale. But even more than the GLF, the new British feminism was a profound challenge to the way that the British Left thought and behaved.
Some of this challenge lay in how the women's groups worked. 'We were very conscious of the fact that the [London Women's Liberation] Workshop's structure was completely different from the traditional Left from which many of us had come,' wrote the Belsize Lane women's group, looking back at their late sixties beginnings for Spare Rib in 1978. 'Our women's groups were deliberately small and federated to avoid the pitfalls of centralization and hierarchy.' Within the groups themselves, the emphasis on individual experience as the basis for forming political ideas was the exact reverse, in many ways, of how trade unions and other orthodox left-wing bodies functioned.
This was not the only point of difference with the unions. In October 1971, the second National Women's Liberation Conference took place in the less romantic surroundings of an out-of-season Skegness. By coincidence, the National Union of Mineworkers, which was gearing up for its strike that winter, was holding its annual conference next door. 'They had a striptease as part of their socializing,' Angie Weir, who was at the women's conference as part of a GLF delegation, recalled later. 'We zapped [disrupted] that and had discussions with the miners … I don't think they were very happy about it. I just remember getting onto the stage when they [the strippers] were on and then being hustled off.'
It was into this world of seemingly limitless political possibilities and difficulties for women that Spare Rib was born. Rowe was twenty-six. Her co-editor Rosie Boycott, another bruised veteran of the underground press, was twenty. 'Their temperaments, for the time being, meshed well,' wrote Boycott in her autobiography, characteristically writing about herself in the cool third person. While Rowe was self-deprecating but steely and principled, Boycott was pragmatic and mercurial, a rebel from an army family and Cheltenham Ladies' College who had already networked her way around the British counter-culture. When they were seeking funds and attention for the first issue of Spare Rib, wrote Boycott, 'Marsha … joined a consciousness-raising group, attended the political meetings and versed herself in the law affecting the rights of women. Rosie went to a few meetings and a large number of parties and talked the whole idea up to anyone who would listen in the hope that they'd forget her age and inexperience and come over with the cash.'
Rowe got hold of desks and filing cabinets by visiting the offices of Ink, which had recently gone bankrupt, before the liquidators moved in. Partly by candlelight – the miners were now on strike – the two women drew up and distributed a questionnaire to find out what other women wanted from a feminist monthly, and from the responses and their own notions they distilled the magazine. 'We wanted to be accessible,' Rowe told me. 'We wanted to do a magazine that was largely professional, we wanted to be in WHSmith. We didn't want to bring it out … the way the underground press did, when they felt like it and when they'd got enough material together. We were going to produce it to a regular schedule, have things in it that were readable.' In her quiet, insistent voice, she went on: 'The whole idea was to do this bridging, this dialogue between what most women would accept in a magazine and what we were trying to explore.'
The first issue was dense and wordy, but unlike most underground publications it was clearly laid out on glossy paper. It had a cover photograph of two smiling, natural-looking women, and non-confrontational cover headlines – 'Growing up in the Bosom Boom', 'Georgie Best on Sex' – that could almost have come from a conventional women's magazine. Inside, the tone was sterner but eclectic. There was a feminist critique of romantic novels, a scattering of rude but pointed cartoons, a rather old-fashioned paean to Barbara Castle ('as slim as a girl … had a hair do before each battle with the toughies from the unions'), a lengthy article on the suffragettes, a recipe page ('banana and raw cabbage salad') and a supportive piece about a group of women in London 'fighting for a fair deal for women night cleaners'.
The first edition of 20,000 copies sold out. Two issues later, on the magazine's first full letters page, a reader wrote:
Dear Spare Rib,
After unsuccessful attempts to obtain your magazine in the early morning, I nipped out in my so-called 'lunch hour' (36 minutes!) and managed to buy a copy. Holding it proudly aloft I marched back into the office feeling liberated already, but, my boss was paying us a visit and had heard of you also, and the remainder of my lunchhour (his is later!) was lost while he was absorbed in our magazine. Very flattering … but not exactly 'Women's Lib!' … Carry on the good work and perhaps one day everyone will know we are equal, including ourselves!
Yours truly,
Elaine Rowland,
70a The Avenue,
Willesden, N.W.6
Not everyone was so positive. Other letter writers, and some prominent older feminists, found Spare Rib insufficiently bold. The magazine's launch party was disrupted by members of one of the GLF's more dogmatic factions, 'dressed', Boycott wrote, 'in clown outfits and smudgy make-up … "You're selling out," they said … "Your magazine is straight and bourgeois."'
There was some truth in this. Spare Rib was set up as a limited company with shareholders. Rowe and Boycott were both conventional figures by GLF standards: they both had boyfriends and plenty of contacts outside the counter-culture. For fund-raising purposes, Boycott wrote, 'Rosie had even dragged Marsha, protesting strongly, to see a rich Arab in Park Lane … Rosie thought it was fine to accept money from any source.'
Yet to focus on such compromises – or potential compromises: the Park Lane meeting came to nothing – was to miss the radicalism of Spare Rib. Article by article, and for the first time in a widely available publication, it laid bare the intricate workings of gender inequality in Britain: the discomfort of going to the pub as a woman alone (all the 'leeringly interested male faces'); the difficulty of being a sportswoman when sports insurers preferred men; the demeaning imagery of women's fashion magazines; the dismal working conditions in women's fashion boutiques; the drudgery of family weekends spent buried under washing and dishes. At the same time, Spare Rib suggested ways out: 'Do-It-Yourself Divorce', 'Working Without a Boss', 'Seeing the Right Sort of Doctor', 'Discovering Women's History', 'Where Can You Turn When Criminal Assault Happens at Home?' And the magazine brought news from around Britain of a spreading wave of women's revolts. In June 1973, it reported,
Twenty mothers sat on playground swings and roundabouts stopping work from starting on the £6m Teeside Parkway road. They were protesting at a plan to turn the play area at Longbank estate, Ormesby into a compound for machinery. [In response] the council has suggested that the playground be resited in an area of the residents' own choice. They also pledged to rebuild the original play area when road works end …
This irreverent new politics was focused on the everyday and the local. 'I thought that people involved in big party politics were a bit irrelevant,' said Rowe. 'I thought, "What's happening that's real is what's on the ground."' And this new politics was as critical of the British state and its paternalistic assumptions as it was of male-dominated trade unions. After all, women had played little part so far in the post-war 'consensus'. Senior civil servants were almost always men. In the early seventies, there had never been a female party leader, let alone a female prime minister. Spare Rib may have praised Barbara Castle, but it also had to note that she 'lost the war' when she took on the unions. At the 1970 general election, only twenty-six women had made it into the Commons, less than a twentieth of the total number of MPs. At the February 1974 election, despite the prominence of the women's movement, the number dropped to twenty-three.
Yet while the new feminists felt justifiably alienated by the post-war consensus – and were one of the decade's first significant rebellions against it – they also shared some of its optimistic assumptions. Their movement had crystallized in Britain in the years before the oil crisis and the turmoil of the mid-seventies. 'Women's demands were formulated at a time when the economy was relatively healthy,' write Anna Coote and Beatrix Campbell. Arguments about equality in the workplace, for example, were made on the basis that women ought to share more fairly in this prosperity. How women might be better protected when and if this economic growth went into reverse was less discussed. When the unemployment rate surged in the mid-seventies, proportionally more women than men lost their jobs. Similarly, the feminist critique of the welfare state assumed that the government would continue to provide; it should simply do so with more sensitivity to women's needs. In practice, this was likely to mean more generously: the free twenty-four-hour nurseries demanded on the first march for women's rights would cost a lot of money. 'We tended to take the reforms of the 1945 government for granted,' wrote Sheila Rowbotham, the historian of British feminism and regular Spare Rib contributor, in her memoirs. 'It seemed to follow that only a fundamental transformation could alter social inequality. We never imagined that this was going to come from the right and actually make Britain more unequal.'
As Spare Rib became established, it started to take on more conventionally left-wing characteristics. In 1973, the magazine became a collective. 'I started going to political study groups and reading Das Kapital,' said Rowe. 'I did go to a few trade union conferences. The first one I ever went to, I just thought, "Oh, middle-aged men." [But] it seemed to be important what women could gain through the trade union movement.'
For all the unions' machismo, real and imagined, as early as 1961 a fifth of their members were women. By 1980, the proportion was approaching a third. Women disproportionately did the worst and lowest-paid jobs, so at least theoretically they had much to gain from joining. And unions were potentially powerful political vehicles, for Women's Lib as for other causes: during the seventies, 'Feminists [took] jobs in unions' expanding research departments,' record Coote and Campbell. '[There were] small but conspicuous incursions of women into manual trades, directly inspired by the women's movement … into such solidly male enclaves as the building workers' union.'
There was male resistance to this growing female interest in trade unionism. When Pat Sturdy, a shop steward from Burnley, set up the Women's Industrial Union in 1971, the first British union for female workers, 'The established union at the plant was even more hostile than management,' Spare Rib later reported. 'She was sent to Coventry by the shop stewards. Called everything from anarchist breakaway to reactionary.' After barely a year, Sturdy wound up her organization and reluctantly applied to rejoin her original, traditional union. The male orientation of such bodies can be gauged from the fact that it took until 1979 for the TUC to publish 'Equality for Women within Trade Unions', a charter calling for 'equality of job opportunity for women' and 'an end to all pay discrimination against women workers'.
But the charter was published. The increasing number of female trade unionists, and the notions about women's rights put into circulation by the new feminism, could not be ignored for ever. The changing nature of the economy also worked in their favour: with male-dominated heavy industry in decline and the more female-dependent service sector and government bureaucracy on the rise, the fastest-growing unions, such as APEX, the office workers' union, and NUPE, the National Union of Public Employees, had large proportions of women members and had to address their concerns. APEX campaigned successfully against discriminatory 'women's grades' of pay in several large companies, while NUPE negotiated better rates of maternity pay.
Even the maligned British government responded to the women's movement in its own halting way. Harold Wilson's relatively enlightened attitude to gender went beyond promoting charismatic figures such as Castle and Shirley Williams. In 1970, his first government passed the Equal Pay Act, which established that women should be paid the same as men if they were doing work that was 'the same or broadly similar'. The Heath administration that followed made a half-hearted attempt to introduce a law banning discrimination against women, but it was too full of exemptions, including clauses excluding education and training from its provisions which were introduced at the insistence of the education secretary – Margaret Thatcher – to have much credibility. The proposed act died with the Heath government.
With Wilson's return to office in 1974, the Westminster campaign for women's rights regained momentum. In 1975, the Equal Pay Act finally came into force. The same year, the government passed a much more comprehensive anti-discrimination law, the Sex Discrimination Act, which covered everything from housing to employment. That year also brought the Social Security Pensions Act, which preserved women's pension rights if they took time off work because of 'home responsibilities and the Employment Protection Act, which introduced paid maternity leave, outlawed dismissal on grounds of pregnancy and gave women the right to spend up to twenty-nine weeks off work after their baby's birth. Finally, the Wilson government set up an Equal Opportunities Commission to enforce the new gender laws.
Many of these initiatives proved flawed in practice. The Equal Pay Act was easily evaded by many employers, who divided their workers by gender and gave each group slightly different tasks and job titles, sometimes with union connivance. Between 1970 and 1977, women's wages as a proportion of men's did rise, from 65 to 76 per cent, but in 1978 the gap started to widen again. The Sex Discrimination Act, in turn, required individuals to prove that they had been unfairly treated in situations – a job interview, a loan application – where the decisive factors were often impossible to disentangle. Between 1976 and 1983, note Coote and Campbell, barely a tenth of the claims made about sex discrimination in the workplace were successful. Meanwhile, the Equal Opportunities Commission was overseen by a cumbersome and divided panel of grandees drawn from both the main parties, the unions, the business world and Whitehall. They were often cautious about women's rights and alienated their more committed young staff. During the commission's first eight years, it launched only nine anti-discrimination investigations.
Yet as in the unions, and as in society as a whole, the political weather in Westminster and Whitehall had unarguably changed for women. The change was often slow, and would remain so, but the world that existed before Women's Lib was not going to be restored.
One sign of this, in urban Britain at least, was the improvisation of a new physical and social infrastructure for bringing up children: community nurseries, one o'clock clubs, toy libraries, adventure playgrounds. Often these were created with limited official assistance and housed in temporary structures – self-built shelters of breeze blocks or rickety wood that stood on patches of waste ground, seemingly held together by little more than rainbow paint schemes and sunny murals. Yet these facilities were places where the grey-brown entropy of many British inner cities in the seventies was first challenged and reversed, and where new, more collaborative arrangements for parents were established. These community projects also proved surprisingly enduring. In Stoke Newington in north London, where Marsha Rowe was living when we met in 2005 and where I live now, most of the squats and shabby terraces that filled the area in the seventies are long gone: refreshed Victorian features and shiny Saabs are more the local rule. But there is still a community nursery and an adventure playground, both set up in the seventies, both a little saggy and peeling yet eagerly staffed and heavily used, within a minute's walk of my house.
'Feminism in the seventies was about all the things that now everyone takes for granted,' Rowe said. As in most revolutions, the gains came at a cost: 'I was exhausted at Spare Rib, absolutely on the edge the whole time.' In 1976, after four years on the magazine, she resigned. She carried on doing bits and pieces for Spare Rib, but her sense of political certainty, like that of the British women's movement in general, was ebbing.
Like Gay Lib, Women's Lib had split. On the one hand, there was radical feminism and its more dogmatic late-seventies variant, revolutionary feminism. They held that the oppression of women by men was so all-pervasive that only a fundamental change in how the genders related would end it. 'As long as women's sights are fixed on closeness to men,' warned the first high-profile British radical feminist manifesto, which was presented at the 1972 National Women's Liberation Conference, 'the ideology of male supremacy is safe.' Relationships with men, therefore, were at best potentially problematic and at worst impossible. Socialist feminism, meanwhile, saw such thinking as wrong and counterproductive: many men and women were inextricably linked through family or friendship or common class interest. The task of modern feminism, this second philosophy argued, was to build alliances with the mainstream left while challenging its male biases.
Rowe had more sympathy with the latter position. 'I was not a separatist. I was a coalitionist. I was in relationships with men. I found the radical feminists alienating.' In 1977, she left London for Bradford with her then boyfriend. After a year, she moved to Leeds. At the end of 1978, burnt out by a decade of activism, she got a serious kidney infection. 'I was ill for almost a year. I just disconnected completely.' When she resurfaced, feminism felt less central to her: she had also become interested in alternative medicine, in Jungian therapy, in French literary theory. She had embarked – she said this even more softly than usual – on 'a long inward journey. A lot of people went inward. It was very hard and painful. It took until about 2000 to look back at the seventies positively.'
She looked up from her living-room carpet. She was in her late fifties now, a freelance writer and 'life writing' teacher, slight and neat, in expensive black combat trousers and a dash of pale lipstick. She was sitting with her legs tucked up under her on the sofa, wild curly hair pulled back. Like Stuart Feather's, her small top-floor flat was immaculate: cream furniture, carefully preserved thirties windows, a view across a park. Perhaps there was something about people who had lived through revolutions that made them want orderly lives in the decades after. 'I've got a whole cupboard of the seventies,' she said. 'I'm writing a memoir of it all now.' And then, just as she had done in some of the photographs I had seen of the Spare Rib staff, she smiled an enormous, slightly intoxicating smile. 'We just thought', she said, 'that we were making our own world.'
10
Get Out of the City
Not all the new political movements of the British seventies were optimistic. Environmentalism was sustained instead by a sense of impending doom. This feeling began to gather the decade before, in books such as Rachel Carson's Silent Spring (1962) and Paul Ehrlich's The Population Bomb (1968), about the damaging effects of pesticides on wildlife and the dangers of global population growth. It gained political traction in Britain in 1967 with the wreck of the oil tanker Torrey Canyon near Harold Wilson's beloved Isles of Scilly, and his government's costly struggle to clear up the toxic tide that followed. And it became an international intellectual fashion by the early seventies, generating further polemics such as Gordon Rattray Taylor's The Doomsday Book (1970), which predicted both a new ice age and global warming; weighty reports such as The Club of Rome's The Limits to Growth (1972), which would go on to sell 4 million copies and be translated into thirty languages; and even its own popular BBC1 drama series, Doomwatch (1970–2), about a fictional government agency set up to deal with ecological disasters.
Some of this eco-pessimism was scientifically rigorous; some of it was scaremongering: 'The children of today's affluent Western societies', warned The Population Bomb, 'will inherit a totally different world in which the standards, politics and economics of their parents will be dead.' Often, the new thinking about the environment was a mixture of both. Either way, it found a receptive audience. After three decades of post-war growth, the cost to the planet – pollution, over-development, depleted natural resources – was increasingly hard to ignore. At the same time, the counter-culture and the rebellions of the sixties had accustomed many Westerners to questioning the values of industrial capitalism. Meanwhile, the disconcerting aspects of life in the late sixties and early seventies predisposed people to doomy thoughts: for America, where the new green politics, typically, crystallized first, there was the Vietnam War; for Britain, which soon sprouted an environmentalist movement of its own, there was the prospect of national decline.
As the brother of James, or 'Jimmy', Goldsmith, the restless, politically preoccupied British tycoon, Teddy Goldsmith grew up in the sort of circles where important men pondered the state of the world. The Goldsmiths were a cosmopolitan banking family who had diversified into public affairs and other businesses. Teddy and Jimmy's father had been a Conservative MP and friend of the young Winston Churchill. Jimmy, exploiting the complacency of the British corporate world in the fifties and sixties, aggressively bought and sold companies. Teddy followed a more circuitous route to prominence.
After leaving Oxford in 1950, he set up in business with his brother, but he lacked the focus for it. What excited him was science, specifically anthropology and ecology, not approached in the careful, empirical way he had been taught at university, but more expansively and intuitively. He read greedily. During the early fifties, he began taking notes for a book he titled The Theory of Unified Science, which would come to include over 200 words he had invented himself. He began travelling the world to see endangered species and what he reverently called 'tribal peoples'. Rich from investing in his brother's companies, he could afford to – and the obvious tension between where his money came from and his concern for the damage done by capitalism did not hold him back. Teddy, like Jimmy, had the ability of the very grand person to sustain a highly contradictory life.
However, his preoccupation with the disappearing natural world was a lonely one. In the West in the fifties and early sixties, economic growth was the orthodoxy, and his great book went unpublished. Then, during the late sixties, he became involved in a committee to 'save' the Brazilian Indians in the Amazon rainforest. Out of the committee came the idea of a magazine to popularize and develop his brand of environmentalism. Work on the publication started in 1969, and the first issue came out in July 1970. It was called The Ecologist.
Its story and significance would be almost as rich as Spare Rib's, but in other respects the two monthlies were very different. While Marsha Rowe and Rosie Boycott's magazine was essentially a grass-roots operation, run by and for ordinary women, Goldsmith's was another important kind of seventies political initiative: a response to one of the era's perceived crises organized, away from Westminster, by members of the British elite. Teddy invested £20,000 of his own money in The Ecologist; his brother contributed £4,500. More funds came from Teddy's friend and companion on some of his environmental expeditions John Aspinall, the collector of endangered animal species, holder of extremely right-wing opinions and owner of the Clermont Club, the private gambling venue favoured by the more reckless alpha males of the London business world. 'A few thousand came from other people,' Goldsmith told me airily when we met. 'Some of it came from the son of a well-known tycoon who wanted to be anonymous. There was a fund-raising party at the Clermont. Laurens van der Post spoke …'
The Ecologist's early staff gave a seminar about the magazine at Eton. Nick Hildyard was in the audience. 'I was a rebel, taking lots of drugs, and I was looking for an intellectual package that made sense,' he remembers. He joined the magazine soon afterwards. Despite his schooling, he was a little astonished by some of the gentlemen's-club attitudes he encountered: 'The social milieu Teddy was involved with was Aspinall and all that. Teddy would relay to us what they were all saying at the Clermont. That Britain was on the verge of a revolution …'
The Ecologist initially defined its desired readership as 'the opinion makers'. Its offices were in Goldsmith's house on Kew Green, an idyll of plane trees and daffodils near the Thames in a prosperous part of west London. Hildyard recalls a sense of heavily subsidized radicalism in the early days: 'Teddy would be getting rid of a house somewhere to pay the next bill.' When I went to visit Goldsmith in 2005, he had moved downriver to Richmond, the next-door and even wealthier suburb. 'I'm at home this afternoon,' he told me on the phone one September lunchtime, after we had exchanged messages for several weeks. His voice was husky and commanding. 'Come and see me.'
*
It was a hot autumn day, of the kind that had become ominously common in the era of global warming. Hurricane Katrina had just swamped New Orleans. As I walked uphill from the station in the fierce sunshine, jets belching fumes passed overhead headed for Heathrow, and the houses got bigger. Goldsmith's was near the top of a slope of Victorian villas, two streets away from Mick Jagger's London residence. It looked no different from its broad, buffed-up neighbours: there were no eco-protest stickers in its sash windows. One ground-floor window, facing the pavement, was confidently wide open, giving onto a long shadowy living room.
Goldsmith came to the door in a tennis shirt. He was seventy-six now, very bony and with a white beard. One trouser leg was caught in his socks, but there was still a faintly messianic strength to his blue eyes. We sat down in the cool darkness of the living room, beneath heavy gold-framed paintings. I asked him about the house. He had had it for twenty years, he said. 'I thought there were going to be floods, so I didn't want a place in Chelsea,' he said with a twinkle. Then the twinkle was gone from his lean face. 'I don't see much of a future for the human race,' he seamlessly continued. 'I think we'll probably disappear in the next fifty years.'
From its first issue The Ecologist was tirelessly apocalyptic. The cover photograph was of a man drowning in quicksand, and the cover lines read: 'Population control for Britain?' and 'Can we avoid a world famine?'. Inside were pictures of poisoned industrial landscapes, breathtakingly severe suggestions for ways out of the planetary crisis – 'why not offer [the public] … a bounty for submitting to sterilization?' – and a long editor's letter by Goldsmith that was monumental in its sweep, certainty and sense of doom:
… Human societies … like all other systems, have an optimum structure that cannot be maintained when growth is too rapid and when they are subjected to … the vast urban wastes that we refer to as our cities. When societies cease to display their correct structure they become disorderly … unhealthily preoccupied with the petty and the short-term … a situation which can only lead to further social disintegration …
Forty pages later, in the book-review section, the assistant editor Robert Allen voiced another of Goldsmith's preoccupations: the superiority of the hunter-gatherer phase of human history over what had followed. 'It is still an open question whether [modern] man will be able to survive the exceedingly complex and unstable ecological conditions he has created,' wrote Allen. 'If he fails … interplanetary archeologists of the future will classify our planet as one in which a very long and stable period of small-scale hunting and gathering was followed by an … efflorescence of technology and society leading to rapid extinction.'
In The Ecologist's offices on peaceful Kew Green, such melodramatic thoughts were not uncommon. Hildyard remembers: 'My sense was, "There's this imminent crisis, unless we work together to change things." That's quite heady stuff.' But there was an awareness among the small staff – made up of long-standing Goldsmith acolytes like Allen and much younger volunteers like Hildyard – that their editor and their publication were also deliberately attention-seeking. 'The writing in the magazine was more aggressive than the feeling in the office,' recalls Hildyard. 'Teddy likes to shock.'
Here and there, The Ecologist also contained more measured and genuinely prescient environmental journalism. The first issue attacked nuclear power, citing its accident rate, the possible risk of cancer for those who lived near plants and the difficulty of storing radioactive waste. Detailed critiques followed of Alaskan oil drilling, industrial farming, supersonic air travel and the building of motor-ways to relieve congestion. By 1972, when the magazine's thinking was distilled into the best-selling paperback A Blueprint for Survival, The Ecologist was a potent mix of cosmic warnings and factual fuel for future green campaigns. And Goldsmith was in demand: 'I gave a talk to the Liberal Party, and to a mix of Labour and Conservative MPs on Commons committees. Eventually [the newly created environment secretary] Peter Walker asked to see me. I went with several academics. We talked to Walker …' Perched impatiently on the edge of one of the living-room sofas, Goldsmith gave a snort. '… He affected a certain interest in what we were doing. But the great problem was that our solution was just too difficult for him.' Goldsmith abruptly stood up, began pacing the room and switched to a campaigning present tense: 'For me economic development is a problem and not a solution. The only thing that can save us is the collapse of the economy.' He switched back to 1972: 'Our meeting with Walker – little came of it.'
One of the Blueprint's recommendations was the establishment of a Movement for Survival, a coalition of green groups that would put pressure on the British government to take the measures – from imposing green taxes and increasing recycling to halving the country's population – that The Ecologist considered essential. 'If need be,' the Blueprint continued, this coalition should 'assume political status and contest the next general election'. The Movement failed to take off: the existing British conservation and organic-farming lobby groups found the Blueprint too alarmist and authoritarian, and decided against joining. Goldsmith was undeterred. When Walker and Heath's dream of a streamlined industrial Britain finally collapsed with the 1974 miners' strike, he ran for Parliament in the February general election.
'I had no idea where to stand, so I thought, "I might as well find my father's constituency." I only found out at the last minute that the seat [Stowmarket in Suffolk] didn't exist any more.' He contested a seat elsewhere in the county instead. 'We took hotels in Framlingham as our headquarters. Most of the people I found to help were hippies. Hair down to their knees, heads enveloped in a blue cloud of marijuana smoke. When I saw them my heart sank' – an unexpected note of self-deprecation had entered his voice – 'because these were the readers of The Ecologist at the time. I fought on the soil-erosion issue. The desertification of East Anglia. We needed a gimmick, as there were only a few weeks to the election, so I dressed all my hippies up as Arabs. The clothes came from theatrical costumiers in Jermyn Street. And my friend Aspinall found me two camels to ride on.' At this, without a flicker of embarrassment, Goldsmith took me upstairs to his bedroom, which was piled with papers and photo albums and books and files, even on the bed itself. He rummaged around for a minute, and then found an old picture of a cluster of long-haired men, wearing ankle-length Arab robes in low winter sunlight, lifting him onto a huge, hairy-faced camel. Goldsmith's one concession to the Westminster etiquette of February 1974 was that he was wearing a suit.
Back in the living room, gentlemen's-club charm in his blue eyes, he continued his account of the election. 'I used to harangue the local farmers: "Have a look at this camel. In twenty-five years' time, this will be the only mode of transport between Framlingham and Saxmundham." Aspinall sent me friends of his to help, sent me people from the Clermont Club. Didn't get on well with the hippies! Hordes of children followed us around. If children could've voted, we'd have won.' He paused for effect. 'I got 340 votes. I was somewhat dejected.'
But, by the mid-seventies, other people were also trying to establish a green presence in British mainstream politics. During 1972, shortly after the publication of A Blueprint for Survival, a small group of work colleagues and friends influenced by it began meeting in a pub in an industrial part of Warwickshire to discuss their fears for the environment. The Club of Thirteen, or the Thirteen Club, as they called themselves after the number of people present, soon produced an even smaller offshoot, made up of two solicitors, an estate agent and his assistant. After corresponding fruitlessly with the main political parties, they decided to set up a British green party. The PEOPLE Party announced its arrival with an advertisement in the Coventry Evening Telegraph on 31 January 1973. Candidates were asked to come forward to contest 600 seats at the next general election. In order to avoid an environmental catastrophe, the party's founders calculated, they would need to be in government by 1990.
The over-optimism and amateurishness of the project seemed to outdo even Goldsmith's political enterprises. The PEOPLE Party was predictably misspelled by the press as the 'People's Party' and assumed to be a new left-wing group. The party's chosen colour scheme of coral and turquoise confused things further by coming out as red and blue when reproduced, out of necessity, on cheap printing presses. Goldsmith himself, whom the PEOPLE founders had contacted, became an early member and gave the party his Movement for Survival mailing list. The party held a 'national conference' and adopted the Blueprint as its manifesto, with all its electorally indigestible demands and warnings.
At the February 1974 election, PEOPLE managed to put up five candidates, not 600. They did better than Goldsmith: one of the solicitors managed 3.9 per cent of the vote in Coventry North-West, which was respectable for a new minor party, and overall the five averaged 1.8 per cent. But at the October 1974 general election, the average shrank to 0.7 per cent. Goldsmith did not stand at all. In Britain that year, voters did not need environmentalists to tell them that the future was looking ominous.
Yet despite the Arab costumes, the foolish names for their political parties and the overblown campaign rhetoric, the new British greens were not just cranks – or some hippy version of the electioneering pranks of Screaming Lord Sutch. Their critique of the consumer-driven, chokingly industrialized post-war world was a profound and far-sighted one. At a time when the conventional political parties were primarily competing, as ever, over who could best deliver an economic boom rather than a recession, the environmentalists had spotted that man was, as the green thinker E. F. Schumacher put it in his 1973 best-seller Small Is Beautiful, 'living on the capital of living nature'. Even North Sea oil, the politicians' great black hope, was going to run out. And although The Ecologist's circulation stayed in the low thousands, during the seventies its anti-urban, anti-industrial ideas reflected and influenced the broader culture.
Watership Down was published in 1972. Laura Ashley's peasant dresses sold in great quantities. Led Zeppelin and other hard-rock bands softened their albums with folky interludes. People watched The Good Life on television and spent their weekends visiting villages in the Cotswolds. They tried home brewing. They moved out of the tatty cities to East Anglia and the south-west, the only two English regions to show significant population growth. They talked about self-sufficiency and when the planet's resources might run out. Even at my old-fashioned boarding school in Berkshire, with its courtyard of parents' Bentleys and BMWs, we scratched out essays about the end of fossil fuels in double science.
In late 1972, Goldsmith and his magazine left Kew Green for Cornwall. 'We moved because we wanted to live the life we suggested,' he told me. 'We had a small farm, a hundred acres. Cows, an orchard with fifty-five varieties of apple trees. Few gadgets. No central heating. A composting lavatory. It never worked. It stunk to high heaven! Some guest we had poured a bottle of Chanel No. 5 down there. It smelled even worse!' Up in his bedroom, he showed me some photos of himself in Cornwall in the seventies. His beard was long and straggly, his eyes big and glittering under a dim Atlantic sky. There was a slight self-consciousness to his poses, a touch of the gentleman farmer, but also a pioneer's determination. Behind him stretched endless muddy fields.
During the mid-seventies, The Ecologist struggled to reconcile Goldsmith's patrician, sometimes very right-wing environmentalism with the more liberal, sometimes left-wing views of Hildyard and other young British greens, who increasingly saw capitalism rather than over-population or 'social disintegration' as the planet's main problem. In July 1975, Goldsmith's close ally Robert Allen wrote a notorious article for the magazine, 'The City Is Dead', which praised the Khmer Rouge for their recent forced evacuation of urban Cambodia. While acknowledging and regretting that this compulsory return to a rural way of life 'has probably killed thousands', and confessing a degree of unease and uncertainty about the Khmer Rouge's wider intentions, Allen's article was, in its title and some of its seemingly more heartfelt passages, recklessly and chillingly celebratory:
They [the Khmer Rouge] seem to be doing their best to ensure that urban parasitism cannot reoccur. They have closed the factories, destroyed the urban water supplies, and wrecked the banks, burning their records and all the paper money they can lay their hands on. They have returned to the barter system … If Cambodia succeeds in forging a decentralized rural economy, it will force us to reappraise the prison of industrialism … They deserve our best wishes, our sympathy, and our attention. We might learn something.
In his living room in Richmond, thirty years on, Goldsmith would talk about the politics behind his environmentalism only indirectly. 'There are a lot of taboo subjects that have to be dealt with,' he said, and then, a few minutes later: 'People who think population is the only issue tend to be right-wing. I've always considered myself a …' He paused. 'I don't see the Conservatives as true conservatives. I believe in family, locality, religion, in traditional societies very, very strongly indeed … I don't believe in nationalization, but privatization can make things very much worse. The problem is not who owns or runs the industries. It's the damage done.'
'I don't think Teddy's a fascist,' says Hildyard, who left The Ecologist, finally and acrimoniously, in 1997 after Goldsmith had given a speech to an audience including members of the French far right. 'I retain enormous affection for him. It's just that a lot of his model-based thinking lends itself to exploitation by very authoritarian groups.' Goldsmith was equally frank about his fall-out with his former protégé, now a director of the left-wing green campaigning group The Corner House. 'Nick Hildyard was a very capable young man, very bright,' he said, not acknowledging that Hildyard had since turned fifty. 'He was like a son to me. He lived with me for a long time.' Then came a flash of anger and defiance in Goldsmith's blue gaze. 'He belongs to a cult of fanatics of political correctness.'
From 1975, despite similar internal tensions, the PEOPLE Party made some progress towards political maturity. That year, it changed its name to the Ecology Party and abandoned its coral and turquoise colour scheme for a sensible, resonant green. The following year, it agreed a new manifesto. Out went the apocalyptic Blueprint for Survival; in came the milder, more positive Manifesto for a Sustainable Society. Rather than a Year Zero dismantling of modern industrial life, the latter argued for 'steady' rather than reckless expansion of the economy, and a green politics aligned with neither the Left nor the Right. The manifesto's unthreatening-sounding notion of sustainability remained the party's buzzword and guiding philosophy for the rest of the seventies and far beyond, eventually entering the language of Westminster politicians and corporations. Meanwhile, the more abrasive energies of British environmentalism were directed into specific campaigns: against nuclear power plants, against toxic waste dumps. 'I remember going on marches in the late seventies against [the nuclear fuel reprocessing plant at] Windscale, getting involved in direct action, sit-ins,' says Hildyard. 'It became more empirical.' At the 1979 general election, the Ecology Party fielded fifty-three candidates, ten times as many as it had ever put up before. Its vice-chairman and one of its main campaign coordinators was, like Hildyard, an Old Etonian, but of a smoother, less radical sort: Jonathon Porritt.
Yet while the British environmentalism of the seventies, even in its most unkempt phases, retained links with the Establishment and the professional classes, there was another potent new political movement, also anti-industrial and boldly utopian, which seemed to have no connection with mainstream British life at all. A fortnight before the October 1974 general election, newspapers and television stations received the following:
ALBION FREE STATE
(a kind of Alternative Society election manifesto)
… The dispossessed people of this country need Land – for diverse needs, permanent free festival sites, collectives, and cities of Life and Love, maybe one every fifty miles or so, manned and womaned by people freed from dead-end jobs and from slavery in factories mass-producing non-essential consumer items …
WE more or less ADVOCATE:
… [The] takeover of waste land, waste buildings … The 'true levellers' in 1649 grew corn by taking over common land … Regular weekly festivals … Festivals are for turning the world on its head … [for] a taste of music, dancing, love and anarchy … Community headquarters for conspiracies and radical activities and family festivities … Neighbourhood and workers' control of local factories, businesses, banks and supermarkets … The end result being a network (which already exists in embryo) of independent collectives and communities, federated together to form the Albion Free State …
There were pages more, of varying punctuation and coherence, concluding with the announcement that 'at the spring equinox, March 21st 1975, from rush hour (5pm) to sunset', the Albion Free State would orchestrate 'sheep grazing and people strolling naked down Piccadilly'.
It was not hard to dismiss the entire document as the wishful thinking of some hippy with a spare evening. Except that, by the mid-seventies, the Albion Free State was not just a phrase; it was one of several labels attached to a large and growing underground movement. And this movement was now coming into the open.
The British counter-culture, as was clear from the activities of the Gay Liberation Front, had not died with the sixties. Instead, it had spread and entrenched itself, often in the empty spaces that economic change or decline had opened up in the run-down inner cities. Ladbroke Grove, Notting Hill, Camden, Hackney, Islington: parts of London in particular in the mid-seventies contained whole dayglo streets of squats – obsolete industrial premises, houses unsold after the 1973–4 property crash – and it was from this milieu that the Albion Free State manifesto emerged. Yet, for some counter-culture activists and would-be visionaries, a city, with its hassle and many policemen, its claustrophobia and commercial pressures – as early as 1972, derelict buildings around Camden Lock, for example, were being converted into antique shops – was not the ideal place to build a new society. What was needed was more of a blank canvas. The revolution would be sown in the countryside.
There had been semi-autonomous, sometimes anarchic 'free festivals' of a sort in rural England – horse fairs, gypsy fairs – since the Middle Ages. From the late fifties, English crowds had assembled and camped in fields to hear trad jazz; from the early sixties, to hear the Rolling Stones and other rock bands. In 1970, these commercial but occasionally lawless events, with their press-baiting scuffles, drug-taking and particular dress codes, began to take on a more radical quality. At that year's Isle of Wight festival, the fences separating ticket-holders from non-payers camping nearby were torn down and the crowd became one. The same summer saw the first large, intentionally free festival, held outside the not very anarchic Sussex town of Worthing. As well as free music, there was free food and, in the festival's latter stages, free drugs. A whole rebellious subculture was forming which established its own temporary utopias – the Worthing festival was called Phun City – and rejected the norms of capitalism and the existing legal limits to pleasure.
In 1971, 10,000 people attended the first free festival at Glastonbury. In 1972, the free-festival movement selected a more politically charged site: Windsor Great Park, right below Windsor Castle, once common land but long since part of the Crown Estate. Led by William Ubique (or 'Ubi') Dwyer, a former civil servant who had become a formidable counter-culture activist and LSD enthusiast, a 'Rent Strike People's Festival' was planned for the August Bank Holiday weekend. No permission was sought from the Crown Estate commissioners, who promptly issued a banning order. Regardless, Dwyer had 100,000 promotional leaflets printed. 'The festival will finish,' the leaflets promised, or threatened, 'when those attending so decide.'
In the event, only 700 people turned up and were almost outnumbered by policemen. The festival ended quickly and without trouble. The following year, Dwyer tried again. Again the Crown Estate forbade a Windsor festival. Again Dwyer sought to provoke: 'The festival … is a revolution,' he told the Windsor Express. 'We want a new society … We want to replace the family with the commune. We want to stop all rent paying. It is a feudal relic from William the Conqueror …' This time, between 10,000 and 20,000 people came, and stayed for nine days. The policing was more aggressive, as was the response to it. Almost 300 people were arrested for drugs offences, officers were abused and threatened, and a police van was attacked. Only a shortage of policemen stopped the site being cleared by force.
In 1974, the apocalyptic year of the British seventies, the Windsor situation slipped from a tense stalemate into outright confrontation. That August, the police, the Crown Estate and the Director of Public Prosecutions responded to Dwyer's plan for a 'People's Free Festival' in the Great Park by considering closing off the site with barbed wire or flooding it with sewage. In the end, they erected a metal barrier to keep out vehicles. Dwyer, in turn, saw the festival as a vital opportunity to undermine the police and the drug laws. As one of his publicity leaflets put it, 'If two people, smoking dope, are approached by the police, they may well piss in their pants from fright … In a crowd of 1,000 all smoking dope together, you can tell the police to piss off.'
The August Bank Holiday arrived. A similar festival crowd to the previous year's gathered in the sunshine. There were Hell's Angels and ice-cream vans, bad trippers and children, free food stalls and no toilets. For five days the police kept their distance, maintaining a heavy-handed cordon around the Great Park and searching people as they came and went. A few officers disguised as hippies allegedly infiltrated the crowd to look for dealers. Newspapers and broadcasters, sniffing a story during a traditional lull for news, gave the festival, which like its Windsor predecessors was illegal, increasingly high-profile coverage. Then, the chief constable in charge of policing the event, David Holdsworth, decided he had had enough. 'The 1974 Windsor Free Festival was nothing more than a gigantic drug-inspired breach of the peace,' he told an official inquiry the following year, 'so I changed my mind about containing it and decided to bring it to an end.'
Blearily early on the sixth morning, his officers moved in. A representative of the welfare and civil-liberties group Release, who was on duty at the festival, gave an account in a Release newsletter of what followed:
At 7.30 [we] were rudely awakened by a hammering on and a rocking of our van. I leaned over to open the door, only to be greeted by about eight policemen who ordered me out of bed … Various reports were coming in concerning violence and arrests at the far end of the park, so [we] headed off to investigate … When we arrived at the middle-park stage, large quantities of policemen were accumulating … There were people on stage encouraging the crowd to enact a policy of non-provocation and non-violence … The police literally ploughed into the crowd … The front line of police had truncheons drawn and were swinging them viciously at anyone who got in their way … Bottles and cans were thrown [at them] … I immediately witnessed the police grab a man who climbed off the stage. He was carrying a guitar … As he was pulled round, his guitar brushed against a policeman who promptly wrenched it from him and hit it against the scaffolding …
[Later that morning] I could see that the cordon of police at the top of the hill had moved down slowly, making a clean sweep of the park … There were about 15 people on top of the scaffolding at the end, a token final protest … While these people were clinging on to the remnants of the stage … police encircled it and began to rock it. The structure was flimsy and I was surprised that it did not immediately collapse. I would not have rated the chances of the people on that scaffolding if they had fallen that forty odd feet. Eventually the people climbed down … The police succeeded in collapsing the stage by rocking it shortly after.
Some interpreters of the British seventies see the closing down of the 1974 Windsor festival as a turning point, the day when the 'permissive society' created in the sixties reached its limits and the coming moral counter-revolution first showed its teeth. In fact, there had been hostility in Westminster to disorderly pop festivals from the beginning. In 1970, the Conservative MP for the Isle of Wight, Mark Woodnutt, spent two days incognito at the island's festival, dressed, he later told the Commons, in a 'hippy outfit'. He was appalled at what he found. The following year, he secured legislation from the Heath government that required large-scale overnight festivals on the island to first obtain official licences. Other Tory MPs with robust views on law and order and pastoral constituencies that were vulnerable to hippy gatherings were impressed. Later that year, eight of them helped introduce a private member's bill to make the Isle of Wight restrictions apply nationally.
But then their Night Assemblies Bill ran into trouble. Its title, with its whiff of authoritarianism and moral panic, upset civil libertarians inside and outside the Commons, who considered the British right of assembly ancient and inviolable. The Times wondered out loud whether the bill might have made the Jarrow and Aldermaston marches illegal. The Heath government, which had initially been supportive of the bill, grew more ambivalent, designating the socially liberal Peter Walker as the minister considering the legislation. The TUC expressed its reservations and, in May 1972, Labour MPs blocked the bill's progress through the Commons for good. Three months later, Ubi Dwyer launched his first straggly-haired invasion of Windsor Great Park. Despite the escalating unruliness of the free festivals there, a significant residue of mainstream political sympathy for such events remained. 'Were the Police Too Tough?' asked the front page of the Sun after the crude clampdown of 1974. The Times also questioned the police tactics, and rosily summarized the business of the festival as 'the languid pursuit of music and sunshine'. The paper concluded: 'Festivals do tend to leave a mess … But they are basically amiable gatherings, which with a degree of tolerance it should be possible to accommodate.'
Starting in late 1974, a rather startling Whitehall experiment in liberal thinking and coalition-building took place. Faced with the prospect of another Windsor festival in 1975 – Dwyer was more determined than ever to stage one – the government slowly, haltingly, arrived at a bold conclusion: the state would have to join forces with the hippies and organize a rival free festival. One of the supporters of the plan was the home secretary, Roy Jenkins. By the mid-seventies, faced with IRA bombs and other worsening forms of public disorder, he was no longer as confidently libertarian as he had been in the sixties. But he remained a liberal where possible – and a political pragmatist. 'A mass pop festival', he wrote of Windsor in his memoirs, 'had been building up for a number of years into an annual semi-riot … and causing Prince Philip near-apoplexy.' To avoid a recurrence, the government would provide an alternative, less controversial site and whatever other assistance the free-festival movement might need. Over the winter of 1974–5 and the spring and early summer of 1975, this unlikely, unprecedented scheme gradually solidified. Its backers besides Jenkins included Release, the environment secretary and other notable Labour libertarian Anthony Crosland, and Stephen Verney, canon of the Royal Chapel at Windsor Castle, who combined Establishment contacts with a belief that young people could not and should not be prevented from going to free festivals.
However, for all this lobby group's liberalism and political leverage, it was not clear how it could do business with the slightly bug-eyed utopian visionaries calling for an Albion Free State. Dwyer utterly rejected the notion of a state-sponsored free festival: to him and many others in the counter-culture it was a contradiction in terms. In early 1975, he was jailed for promoting his next Windsor gathering in defiance of a legal injunction. But others in the free-festival movement were beginning to think more flexibly. Of these, the most prominent, and the most crucial to what would follow, was Sid Rawle.
Rawle was thirty, a big, bossy man from the West Country. He had already done a decade and a half in the counter-culture. He had been a Young Communist, an anarchist, a CND activist and a beatnik in Soho. He had been a founder of Tipi Valley in Wales, a famous settlement of hippies living in Native American tents. He had taken part in an even more famous commune on an Irish island owned by John Lennon. In 1974, 'The King of the Hippies', as Rawle liked to call himself, and as others sometimes called him, had helped Dwyer publicize that year's Windsor festival. In 1975, he had been jailed shortly after Dwyer for helping to advertise the next one.
But while in Pentonville prison, he had come to the conclusion that the free-festival movement might not survive further head-on confrontations with the government. He agreed to join a committee set up by Canon Verney to find an alternative to Windsor. He was released from Pentonville and went to see Dwyer in Oxford jail, but failed to persuade him of the radical value of a state-backed festival.
Rawle now found himself, only partly to his surprise, the most powerful hippy in the country, perhaps the most powerful there had ever been. 'At Windsor, Ubi Dwyer was the king of the hill,' he told me on the phone thirty years later, tiny prickles of competitiveness still detectable beneath his easy West Country burr. 'I didn't realize it at the time, but I ran a sort of coup.' A minute later, he added with more obvious relish: 'In 1975, we had the government by the balls.'
He was living in the Forest of Dean in Gloucestershire now, one of the few corners of southern England still remote and cheap enough for an uncompromised old hippy. One November morning, I drove there from London. After Cheltenham, the familiar Gloucestershire of sweet hills and prime properties receded. The road began to rise and twist back on itself and the forest closed in. There were huge, primeval beech trees and clearings full of rusted bracken; grey little ex-mining towns and dripping curtains of fir trees. There was a maze of brown lanes; at the top of one, guided by Rawle's precise instructions, I saw an old green hippy caravan, and then another, and then half a dozen other vehicles, some of them without wheels. Beyond them, half screened by trees, was a purple-painted bungalow with plants tangling on every windowsill.
Rawle came striding out of the doorway. He was tall and red-faced, with fierce eyes and an unkempt ginger beard. He wore wellington boots, blue mechanic's overalls from which a great prow of a stomach confidently protruded, and a small multicoloured ethnic cap of the kind favoured by very elderly British bohemians and jazz musicians. He spoke in a near-bellow, like a potentially belligerent hippy farmer. 'I tend to tell the story of the free festivals very self-centredly,' he began immediately. 'I tend to think I was in the middle of everything and leading it.' Then he ushered me off on a tour of his property. We squelched through his orchard with its medieval fruit varieties, paused at his standing stones and homemade pagan temple, and admired his three acres of winding paths and earthworks. Rawle told me he had once been 'the high priest of the hippies'. Then we went indoors to a long dim sitting room full of rugs and drapes and Celtic knick-knacks. He sat in a deep armchair at one end and pointed me to another.
'In 1975,' he said, 'I was trying to find an acceptable way to do the festival. Bill [Dwyer] wasn't into negotiating. But it's my gut feeling that the government cannot be seen to be beaten by us. Bill said, "You're a traitor, blah blah blah." But I thought, "If we lose this festival, we've lost the free-festival movement." I thought a festival was a way of getting the message over … a meeting place for a new culture. I thought it could propagate ideas.' He reached for a strikingly capitalist metaphor: 'I've always seen these things as trade fairs for alternative lifestyles.'
He found the Verney committee a welcoming environment. 'It wanted to find a solution. The civil servants on the committee became habituated to me. My drug-taking and drinking always was minute – I never was that interested. It gives me an advantage in the free-festival context. And I can sway a big crowd. One day, I'm sitting there on the committee, and someone said, "They want to offer you an old wartime airfield."'
Watchfield in Oxfordshire was a windy plateau near Swindon where RAF bomber pilots had learned bad-weather landing during the Second World War. It had been disused and left to vandals since 1946, but it still had a control tower and a huddle of other buildings, and tarmac strips that were suitable for vehicles. It was close to a village of the same name and was still owned by the Department of the Environment – and it was not in a Labour constituency. For Rawle and the large part of the free-festival movement who went along with the government plan, there was an additional draw: 'What we really liked was that [from there] we could see the white horse at Uffington. We said, "That's a sign."'
In late July, the government announced that a festival would be held at Watchfield. It would take place in less than four weeks – not long for any opposition to the event to organize itself – and would last from Saturday 23 to Sunday 31 August, three times as long as more conventional commercial rock festivals. The Albion Free State had been given a generous showcase for its wares. But getting the gathering organized was still a frantic, ideologically compromised undertaking. 'The government fought shy of giving us any money,' Rawle remembered. 'A big catering company got hold of us and said they were prepared to give us a few grand for the exclusive right to the commercial food stand.' Rawle agreed. 'Then we got turned down for the alcohol licence by Faringdon magistrates' court. We had sold the [alcohol] licence to another big catering firm for 2.5 or 5K. I said to my government minder, "If we don't get the licence, we ain't going to have a penny. I'm going to walk away." We got back in front of the same bench of magistrates within twenty-four hours and were given our licence.' In the meantime, the government arranged a temporary water supply and toilets for the festival. 'They provided huge amounts too much of everything,' said Rawle. 'When we got to the site, there were huge great water pipes all around.'
The approach of the festival was not greeted with universal delight locally. The nearby village was part of a safe Conservative seat. Watchfield had thatched houses, a stone church and 600 inhabitants, including a pub landlord who told the tabloids about his dislike of 'longhaired yobboes' and his plans to 'board up the windows and sit tight until they're gone'. A protest meeting against the festival attracted half the village, and a petition was delivered to the Home Office. The weekend before the event, the News of the World reported that Watchfield children were being 'evacuated' to stay with relations, and that pensioners in the village were 'leaving for reluctant holidays'. An Oxfordshire county councillor, Eric Bond, was also quoted: 'Lock up your daughters.'
The most high-profile opponent of the festival, though, was the local MP, Airey Neave. He was a war hero who had escaped from Colditz; a Machiavellian Tory close to the military and the intelligence services; and a member of many of the new right-wing groups and networks, some parliamentary and some not, beginning to form across Britain, from the Clermont Club in Mayfair to Norman Tebbit's Essex suburbs, which were fundamentally against Heath and Wilson and the whole liberal-leaning seventies consensus. In short, Neave was everything that the festival scheme – state-sponsored, almost Scandinavian in its symbolism and permissiveness: a Second World War airfield given over to pacifist hippies – was not. 'The conduct of the government in offering this site … is scandalous,' he told the News of the World. 'The taxpayer is going to pay and I am asking the [parliamentary] Ombudsman to investigate.'
But the time for Neave's sort of politics to shape British life had not yet come. The same edition of the paper noted that festival-goers had already started arriving in Watchfield, a week early. 'Two girls from Raynes Park, Surrey' had 'set up base in a derelict nissen hut' on the airstrip. Their manner and background suggested that the free-festival movement was both broader and less threatening than the likes of Neave imagined. 'Telephonist Vicki Scorpio, aged 20,' told the tabloid: 'I just hope there will be no trouble. I've come to listen to music.'
By 23 August, the dry grass and shadeless runway tarmac had been turned into a rudimentary town with room for 20,000 people. It had a nursery and an ecumenical chapel; its own radio station and newspaper, the Watchfield Freek Press; drinking water and on-site welfare services; camper van and car parks; a covered sleeping area in an old hangar; a giant sandpit, theatre and cinema; piles of firewood provided by the county council; and a 'Polytantric Stage', a 'Rent a Loony Stage' and a kids' play area. Around the perimeter and a short walk away in the village, 450 policemen and a droning police helicopter had been deployed. Seemingly almost as many bands were on the Watchfield bill: Hawkwind, Gong, Henry Cow, Human Abstract, Poltergeist, Wooden Lion, Solar Ben, Arthur Brown, Zorch, Tibet – the whole hairy spectrum of free-festival regulars, from the famous to the esoteric, from sixties-rooted psychedelic explorers to brow-furrowing left-wing improvisers. All these musicians would be providing their services to the Albion Free State for nothing.
At first, the utopian promise of it all proved less of a draw than expected. On the opening day, only 5,000 people turned up, to the derision of the many waiting journalists. The weather was unseasonably cold, with a frost forecast for the first night. The counter-culture grapevine was soon full of mutterings about the concessions that had made the festival possible. 'Almost a year of hassle, barter and disappointment', commented the underground paper the International Times, had produced 'a gloriously British compromise … A social democratic government has provided a site that can, in many ways, be regarded as liberated territory … within the terrain of dominant hostile culture. In some people's eyes, we have supped with the devil.' The New Musical Express was ruder and more concise: Rawle had been 'nobbled'.
But as the nine days of Watchfield passed, the unbuttoned norms of a long free festival gradually asserted themselves. The weather got much warmer. Men and women took their shirts off. The encampment thickened with vans and tepees, modern tents and caravans, shelters made out of corrugated iron or opened umbrellas or sheets of polythene. Zorch played a set that lasted from 11 p.m. to 5 a.m. Poltergeist played as a couple had sex under the stage to cheers from the audience. A dog fell into the toilets, and volunteers struggled to pull it out. Someone painted a huge smiley face on the control tower. The Bishop of Reading, Eric Wild, held a service of Holy Communion on the main stage and 'gained a generous round of applause', The Times reported, 'for his rendering of "The Lord Is My Shepherd"'. The commercial caterers were accused of overcharging. Chewy free bread was baked in an oil drum. Black-painted spaghetti was offered for sale as acid. Real LSD was in short supply, but a building was put aside for those having problems with it. 'In those days,' Rawle told me with an exasperated look, 'you put all the bad trippers together and created an even worse situation.' Every morning, there were public meetings for people to discuss the festival with him and the other organizers. A unanimous vote at one banned the Daily Express from the site for publishing a scare article headlined 'The Festival of Darkness'. There were a few muggings, tent robberies and drug busts. Hell's Angels, as they tended to at festivals, took over site 'security'. The police mostly kept their distance.
On the far side of the village from the airfield, there was a military training college which it was feared the hippies might invade. 'I was a squaddie there,' a man at the bar in the village pub told me thirty years later. He was still trim and correct, an ex-Ministry of Defence policeman, but he remembered the festival with an indulgent smile. 'The civilian police guarded the army houses,' he said. 'Everybody in the village was thinking there was going to be veg nicked out of their gardens. But it wasn't a rowdy pop festival. You could hear the music in the village. There was a bit of wacky baccy, but what's wacky baccy nowadays? We never heard of any hard-drug dealing. The police just slept in the army houses and drank in the mess.'
Meanwhile, he and some other soldiers went to have a look at the festival. 'We walked across the fields and walked in. I suppose we must have stood out. I'd never really been to a pop festival. We said hello to people and they spoke back. They were friendly people, a friendly crowd.' Did the villagers themselves go and have a look? His smile turned knowing: 'Oh yeah. Everybody went. They had to – they're nosy. One lad went to have a look, stayed over. And he ended up going off with the hippies for a few weeks.' He chuckled: 'Good old Arthur. He was a bit of a gullible sort of a bloke …'
During the second weekend of the festival, the News of the World ran a page of photos of women sunbathing topless on the airfield: 'Lanes near the site have been crowded with people in cars trying to see the bare girls.' Feminism or no feminism, in Britain in the seventies the sight of female flesh in public still turned a lot of people into Benny Hill. The News of the World interviewed 'four schoolgirls' from Swindon: '15 year-old Carol said, "We heard they were all taking their clothes off so we hitched a lift to have a look. Our parents don't know we're here. We've never seen anything like it."' The International Times' coverage also switched from grudging to excitable: 'Looking out on the swelling encampment … all seems worthwhile. Watchfield and its successors … will extend the psychological boundaries of our liberated territory as each day passes. One day the whole country will be a free festival, and a permanent one too!'
Even Neave's view of the event underwent an abrupt thaw. On 25 August, a stout fifty-nine-year-old man with a Brylcreemed gentlemen's-club haircut was improbably spotted among the festival crowd. The following day, The Times reported:
Mr Neave strolled round the site with his family, watching the bands and chatting to one or two rather bemused festival-goers. 'It is very orderly,' he commented … He [also] said … that he would like to see a permanent site [for free festivals] … so long as it was self-financing, and not an imposition on local villagers, ratepayers or taxpayers … His views echoed those of Mr Sidney Rawle as stated earlier in the day.
Civil servants also visited the site and held daily meetings there with Rawle. Lord Peter Melchett, a Labour junior minister who had helped conceive the Watchfield scheme and had now been commissioned to produce a government report on free festivals, camped on the airfield incognito. Eight months later, his working group, which included police and local-council representatives as well as more obviously pro-festival figures such as Melchett himself, published its conclusions. 'Pop festivals', the report began, 'are a reasonable and acceptable form of recreation.' Watchfield had 'passed off peacefully, with little trouble and relatively few arrests'. In fact, far from being a law-and-order problem, such events were of social benefit:
We think that festivals can offer useful experience to young people in living away, even if only for a short time, from the facilities of modern society …People come together from different parts of the country and varied social backgrounds, and free festivals offer a valuable opportunity for broadening personal experience. In particular free festivals give people from inner city areas the incentive to get out into the countryside … It is [also] the experience of some members of the Working Group that some of the people who attend free festivals are disturbed or distressed – people who would not normally seek help from conventional sources but many find sympathetic help readily available at free festivals. We think that this ability to provide the right surroundings for such people is a useful function …
The report also saw free festivals as valuable cultural events, particularly for the poor: 'People who cannot afford to go to commercial festivals should have the opportunity of attending free festivals.' As for the allegation – for which there was considerable evidence – that much of the daily life of such gatherings was conducted outside the law, the working group shrugged its shoulders: 'Criminal offences, particularly drug offences, will inevitably be committed at free festivals … But we think that Government support for an event need not necessarily imply that the Government condones any crimes that individuals may commit while attending …' For those in any doubt by the end of the report about where the working group's thinking was leading, an appendix was included: 'What to take to a pop festival'. The advice included 'Wear a good pair of shoes' and 'If you intend to take a baby and/or young child make sure you have all the things that you will need. It may be difficult to buy them on, or near, the site.' The Albion Free State, it seemed, was virtually becoming an arm of the welfare state.
In fact, Melchett's May 1976 report and the idealism-tinged improvisation that was Watchfield marked the peak of Whitehall's enthusiasm for free festivals. 'At the end of Watchfield,' Rawle remembered, 'one of the government people there said to me, "This has been too embarrassing for the government. We are not going to be able to do this next year."' In his memoirs, Roy Jenkins portrays the 1975 gathering as no more than an awkward one-off: 'All passed off calmly. The disused airfield appeared to bore the pop fans and that festival was never heard of again.' In early 1976, before the Melchett report came out, the government announced that it would not provide funding or a site for a free festival that summer, in Watchfield or anywhere else. An uncharacteristically chilly sentence in the Melchett report acknowledged the government's rationale: 'Public expenditure on essential services is under severe restraint.'
In the more conventional Britain beyond the sun-struck hilltops the free-festival movement inhabited, the mid-seventies crisis was tightening. All the Melchett report could offer Rawle and his fellow hippy entrepreneurs was the vaguest prospect of official support: 'There is still scope for considering limited public assistance to free festivals … We propose to give further thought to how this might be done.' By the time the report came out, Melchett had been transferred from the Department of the Environment to the Department of Industry, which had no responsibility for festivals.
In August 1976, 1977 and 1978, a People's Free Festival was staged somewhere in southern England, but without government backing and with increasingly effective opposition from local councils, landowners and the police. Attendances dwindled: to 1,000, then 500, then 300 people. Rawle became less involved. 'The government missed a huge opportunity to use the energy of the hippies,' he said, getting up from his armchair and pacing his darkening living room. 'Why didn't bloody Roy Jenkins call me in and talk to me?'
In Watchfield a few weeks earlier, before I visited the pub, I walked out to the festival site. It was late August, thirty years exactly since the last day of the festival. But a business park had been built between the village and the airfield, full of high-tech companies unimaginable in the Britain of 1975. When I got to the festival site, there was nothing but ploughed-up stubble. The buildings had all gone. The closest I came to a relic of the festival was a bleached old wooden box with hippyish lettering that I found in a clump of weeds. The same corner of the site had been leased to a mobile-phone company for a fat humming aerial.
Yet the festival had left more than memories. 'There used to be a lot of hippy travellers on the airfield in the eighties,' said the first person I approached in the business park. He shrugged and pointed beyond the airfield: 'There's still a hippy festival at West Mill Farm.'
The farm was at the bottom of a lane of dusty nettles. The sign by the entrance was also in hippyish letters. Beside the farmyard two small wind turbines turned in the hot breeze. In one of the farm buildings I found a middle-aged man with a ponytail. 'We do horticultural therapy here for people who've had mental-health problems,' he said. I asked about the hippy festival I'd been told about. 'There's a gathering for Druids behind the farm every year,' he said matter-of-factly. 'It lasts for three or four days. It's been going on for years. They never cause any trouble.' I mentioned the 1975 festival and suggested it had established a local hippy tradition. 'That's right,' he said. ''75 was the first of the big green gatherings.'
He gave me a phone number for the owner of the farm, Adam Twine. Twine remembered only a little about the event – 'I was fourteen then' – but he explained that his family had leased the old airfield site for farming, on and off, for decades. His father had been running the farm at the time of the 1975 festival. 'I'm sure he was really fed up with it,' Twine said. 'Dad certainly wasn't sympathetic to those ideals.' Yet Twine himself had followed a different political path. He had become an anti-nuclear activist in the late seventies and early eighties. More recently, he had run for Parliament as a Green Party candidate. Now he was planning to turn the gusty old festival site into a wind farm. There had been opposition from some of the villagers, but he said he was undeterred. The local press had reported that he 'proposed painting the turbines in rainbow hues'. In a stony field in Oxfordshire some essence of the Albion Free State lived on.
11
Margaret and the Austrians
In 1975, Airey Neave had more success with another campaign he organized. This time, it was not against a hippy festival in his constituency; it was one that offered a bigger prize – the Conservative Party leadership.
Despite his general election defeat in October 1974, his second in a year and his third in four such contests, Ted Heath had not resigned. Labour's tiny majority, the ongoing economic crisis and the imminent referendum on EEC membership all helped convince him to continue as party leader, in the belief that the country would soon need him again as prime minister. His stubbornness and self-belief did the rest. But Neave and many other Conservatives were less persuaded. Four days after the election, the executive of the 1922 Committee, the party's most powerful internal body, voted unanimously that there should be a leadership contest.
Neave was a long-standing enemy of Heath: they had fallen out in the fifties, depending on which account you believe, either over Heath's lack of sympathy for Neave's sometimes delicate health or over Heath's poor estimation of Neave's political ethics and abilities. Neave was also a member of the 1922 executive. So was Edward du Cann, another Heath enemy and Neave's first choice as the next party leader, but he was a merchant banker with a problematic City reputation, and he eventually decided not to stand.
Neave's next preference for leader was Keith Joseph. Heath's former secretary of state for health and social security was now an increasingly outspoken critic of the economic policies of the Heath government and its post-war predecessors. Dark-eyed and nervily handsome, Joseph was an intense, brilliant speaker and thinker. He had taken over from Enoch Powell as the public face of the anti-Keynesian, pro-market movement that was building on the fringes of British Conservative politics. But, like Powell, Joseph was an iconoclast who did not know when to stop. Nine days after the October 1974 election, with his potential as a Tory leader beginning to be seriously discussed in Westminster and the media, Joseph gave a speech in Birmingham, where Powell had made his 'rivers of blood' speech six years earlier. 'The balance of our population, our human stock, is threatened,' Joseph warned with similar portentousness. 'Single parents from [the relatively poor] classes four and five are now producing a third of all live births.' The pro-eugenics implications of the speech caused uproar in the press. Joseph was accused, not entirely accurately, of advocating compulsory contraception, even sterilization for the working class. For a month afterwards, he alternated between trying to explain his position and trying to apologize. All the while, his reputation for poor political judgement and intellectual contortions grew. On 21 November, he withdrew from the leadership contest.
During October and November, other possible contenders were talked up: confident liberal Tories like Jim Prior and Peter Walker; the soft-spoken but ambitious Geoffrey Howe, a more diplomatic spokesman than Joseph for the new right-wing economics; and the revered negotiator and coalition-builder Willie Whitelaw. Neave, an instinctive hedger of political bets, and increasingly desperate to get rid of Heath, offered Whitelaw his services. But Whitelaw, like Joseph and du Cann, decided not to run. Instead, in January 1975, Neave ended up as campaign manager for the contender long considered the cleverest but also the most doomed: Margaret Thatcher.
The deputy to the shadow chancellor was forty-nine. She had been an MP for sixteen years, a minister or shadow minister for fourteen, and a major public figure since the early seventies. She was a fast learner, a holder of fierce convictions and a highly distinctive speaker and political presence. She had made her way in a post-war Conservative Party – and a post-war Britain – largely unsympathetic to ambitious women and to politicians with her kind of right-wing opinions. She understood much better than Joseph and Powell the value of sometimes being patient or pragmatic. She had a growing number of admirers in Westminster and the media, and was not closely associated with Heath.
Yet all these assets seemed to be far outweighed by her liabilities. To many, Margaret Thatcher was little more than a curiosity or an under-performing, ageing political prodigy. Her record as a minister was modest. She had held only one Cabinet position, education secretary between 1970 and 1974. During that time, she had disappointed her right-wing allies by failing to slow the expansion of comprehensive education and education spending. She had also failed to oppose the panicky lurch to the left of Heath's economic policy. An isolated and uninfluential figure in the Cabinet, her high profile outside it both at the time and since was in some ways closer to notoriety. In 1971, she had abolished free school milk for children aged seven to eleven and acquired an enduring nickname: 'Margaret Thatcher Milk Snatcher'. That year, the Sun called her 'The Most Unpopular Woman in Britain'.
There was often a crude misogyny behind how she was regarded, but in Britain in the seventies – and afterwards – for all the impetus of women's lib, misogyny remained a potent political and electoral force. And besides, when newspapers and the public did express enthusiasm for the prospect of a female prime minister, they often preferred Shirley Williams, with her easy warmth and unstyled air, her seemingly modern informality, to the colder, more old-fashioned-looking Conservative with her buttoned-up suits and big fixed smile. Margaret Thatcher was, essentially, not easy to be around: 'Thatcher was always tiresome,' remembers the political journalist Michael White, who spent a lot of time with her in the seventies. 'There was no romance, no self-analysis, no self-consciously epic quality like you would have got with Churchill.' In character, Thatcher the brilliant, chilly loner was like Heath in some ways, and by the autumn of 1974 many Tories thought they had had enough of that sort of leader. And even more than Heath, she lacked the class background and manner of a traditional Conservative grandee. In September, The Times published a quote from Powell that was close to the consensus view on her chances of leading the party: 'They would never put up with those hats or that accent.'
Contests for party leaderships, however, are rarely about ideal candidates. They are about who is bold enough to stand. On 21 November, Thatcher recalls in the first volume of her autobiography, The Path to Power,
… I was working in my room in the House, briefing myself on the Finance Bill, when the telephone rang. It was Keith [Joseph] … he had something he wanted to come along and tell me. As soon as he entered, I could see it was serious. He told me: 'I am sorry, I just can't run. Ever since I made that [Birmingham] speech the press have been outside my house …' I was on the edge of despair. We just could not abandon the Party and the country to Ted [Heath]'s brand of politics. I heard myself saying: 'Look, Keith, if you're not going to stand, I will …'
Her campaign began slowly. Until the end of the year, she insisted that she would only formally stand against Heath – the vote was not until February – if no one else did. It was widely assumed that this seemingly tentative challenge would prompt a stronger candidate to declare himself. And when no such figure did, it was widely assumed that Heath, damaged as he was, would win by default. Polls showed that Conservative voters preferred him; so did most of the shadow cabinet; so did the Conservative Party in the Lords and in the constituencies.
Yet in reality these groups were either marginal or irrelevant to the coming contest. Under the rules of Tory leadership races, which had recently, with the party in a restive phase, been subtly but significantly tilted against incumbents, Conservative MPs alone decided the fates of candidates. In February 1975, there were 277 Tory MPs. Being chosen as leader required the support of a majority – a minimum of 139 votes – and also a victory margin over your nearest rival of 15 per cent of the parliamentary party, or forty-two votes. If this demanding electoral arithmetic produced no clear winner, further rounds of voting would be held until one emerged. In effect, any significant degree of support for an alternative to Heath, plus a reasonable number of abstentions, would prevent him winning a clear victory and leave the wounded Tory leader at the mercy of a second ballot.
Heath's position was further weakened by the ineptness of his campaign. At times, it was gratingly overconfident, with his lieutenants boasting publicly that he had the support of more than enough MPs to win comfortably on the first ballot; at others, it seemed clumsily, vulnerably eager to please, with the usually aloof Heath suddenly buying drinks in the Commons and holding awkward dinner parties for Tory MPs. By contrast, Thatcher's campaign quietly acquired momentum. Neave and Thatcher had known each other since the early fifties, when they had both been parliamentary candidates. Unlike her, he had spent the intervening decades carefully building Commons alliances and gathering information about fellow MPs. He knew who might be persuaded to support her, and who might be the best person to do the persuading. Sometimes it was himself; sometimes it was an MP already friendly with the intended convert; and sometimes it was Thatcher herself, low-voiced and ready to listen, more patient and less abrasive in private than she usually was in public.
While this discreet lobbying went on, Neave slyly played down her rising levels of support. He told potential backers that she was performing respectably but not strongly enough to defeat Heath. The implication was that MPs could use her candidacy either to teach Heath a lesson and make him behave better as leader in future, or simply to force a second ballot, at which point the rules still permitted other candidates to enter the race.
Thatcher also gathered votes by more straightforward means. In a Commons debate on inheritance tax in mid-January, she made a calculated and effective attack on one of Labour's most formidable public speakers, the chancellor Denis Healey: 'Some Chancellors are macro-economic. Other Chancellors are fiscal. This one is just plain cheap.' And she gave a glimpse of the new thinking she intended to bring to the Conservative Party. 'The future of freedom', she declared ambitiously, 'is inseparable from a wide distribution of private property among the people, not concentrating it in the hands of politicians.' In an article for the Daily Telegraph nine days later, she was more expansive:
I was attacked [as education secretary] for fighting a rear-guard action in defence of 'middle-class interests'. The same accusation is levelled at me now … Well, if 'middle-class values' include the encouragement of variety andindividual choice, the provision of fair incentives and rewards for skill and hard work, the maintenance of effective barriers against the excessive power of the state … then they are certainly what I am trying to defend … If a Tory does not believe that private property is one of the main bulwarks of individual freedom, then he had better become a socialist and have done with it. Indeed one of the reasons for our electoral failure is that people believe too many Conservatives have become socialists already … Why should anyone support a party that seems to have the courage of no convictions?
This kind of confidence and aggression, of clarity and ideological frankness, had not been displayed in combination by a senior Tory for decades. Five days later, on 4 February, the first ballot for the party leadership took place. Heath got 119 votes and Thatcher 130. Heath resigned immediately, and it was announced that a second ballot would take place a week later, and that Willie Whitelaw, Geoffrey Howe and Jim Prior would also be standing.
Thatcher and Neave's successful ambush of Heath sent a tremor across Westminster, but only a mild one. In Downing Street, Harold Wilson was with Ronald McIntosh, discussing how best to manage the investment programmes of the nationalized industries. 'While we were talking the news came in,' wrote McIntosh. 'Wilson said that like me he was surprised that Margaret Thatcher had got more votes than Ted. He said that the Conservative Party would not be willing to have her as leader and that Whitelaw would win in the second ballot.' The following day, McIntosh had lunch with the chancellor. 'Healey told me he had expected Heath to get more votes than Thatcher; and like the PM he expects Whitelaw to be the next leader.'
On 11 February, Thatcher beat Whitelaw in the second ballot by seventy-seven votes and became the first female leader of a major British political party. 'I rapidly scribbled some thoughts in the back of my diary,' she wrote later, 'because I knew I would now have to go and give my first press conference as Party Leader.' In the Grand Committee Room next to Westminster Hall, she faced a crush of slightly stunned male journalists. Her suit was severe and dark, her hair like a blonde battle helmet, and her answers were disconcertingly direct and short. She was asked, absurdly, if she had won because she was a woman. 'I like to think I won on merit,' she replied. Then she held poses for the photographers. 'I am now going to take a turn to the right,' she advised them half-jokingly, 'which is very appropriate.'
The next morning, the Daily Telegraph acknowledged that something momentous might have happened: 'Her accession to the leadership could mark a sea-change.' But as striking as the excitement of the most deeply Tory paper was its use of the word 'could'. For all her fame or notoriety, for all her campaign's public engagements, for all its statements about her personal beliefs, Thatcher was still a somewhat mysterious political figure. She had few well-known allies; she had a distinct tone but not many defined policies; and her suitability for the political environment of the British seventies, outside the peculiar hothouse of a Conservative leadership contest, was far from established. Another area of uncertainty concerned her social position and background. 'Since getting into Parliament in 1959 she had been happy to present herself as the archetypal Tory lady … quintessentially southern and suburban,' writes her biographer John Campbell. 'She had a rich businessman husband, sent her children to the most expensive public schools, lived in Chelsea and represented Finchley.' Yet this version of herself, while true up to a point, was far from the whole story. The real Margaret Thatcher was both much less polished and much more interesting.
She came from the East Midlands town of Grantham in Lincolnshire. It was a low-lying, ordinary place – part market town, part road and railway hub, part engineering works – and her father Alfred Roberts was a grocer. She was born in 1925 in a flat above his shop. Fifty years later, as the new Tory leader, she would begin emphasizing these biographical details for the first time: after Heath and Wilson, she realized a modest provincial upbringing was close to obligatory for a major British political figure.
Yet her childhood was more comfortable than theirs in small but significant ways. Her father had started out as a shop assistant, and her mother Beatrice as a dressmaker, but by the time Margaret was born – the younger of two daughters – her father had saved and worked his way to owning three shops, two of which had been knocked together, and he employed staff. 'My father was a specialist grocer,' she wrote later, '… the best-quality produce … three rows of splendid mahogany spice drawers with sparkling brass handles …' In the larger shop there was also a post-office franchise. Alfred Roberts was a contractor for the state as well as the dedicated small businessman his daughter would come to canonize.
He was also on the town council from 1927 to 1952, first as a councillor, then as an alderman, then as mayor. Officially, he was an Independent – there was a fading tradition in local government of not having party affiliations – but his politics were clear. 'The Independent group on the council was an anti-socialist coalition,' writes Campbell, and Roberts's 'overriding purpose in local politics was keeping the rates down. He very quickly became chairman of the Finance and Rating Committee, and retained that position for more than twenty years … He established a formidable reputation for guarding the ratepayers' pennies as carefully as his own.' After Labour took over the council for the first time, in 1950, as part of the post-war national surge of support for state spending and socialism, Roberts's political career was gradually terminated.
Margaret inherited his work ethic and much of his politics. She helped in the shop – 'there was, of course, no question of closing down for long family holidays', she wrote in her autobiography – and she helped the Conservative Party from the age of ten, delivering messages for them during the 1935 general election. The reined-in, conscientious quality of her childhood – 'nothing in our house was wasted, and we always lived within our means' – would furnish her with a whole political lifetime of morality tales. Yet she got out of Grantham as fast as she reasonably could. Quiet but self-assured, she studied hard at school, precociously read politics books and the Daily Telegraph, and won a place to study chemistry at Oxford. She arrived there in 1943, graduating in 1947. After several unsuccessful job interviews – in her autobiography Thatcher proudly quotes the notes from one: 'This woman has much too strong a personality to work here' – she obtained a job as a research chemist in one of the new British industries emerging away from the East Midlands. 'I was taken on by BX Plastics at Manningtree just outside Colchester.'
What was missing from this relatively smooth passage through the thirties and forties, compared to the experiences of Wilson, Heath and their generation of British politicians, was the decisive influence of the Depression and the Second World War. Bombs fell on Grantham, the unemployed queued outside the Labour Exchange – with Thatcher passing them on her way to school – but her life and outlook were not transformed. She was too young, her family slightly too comfortably-off, and she was the wrong gender to wear a combat uniform. She was not left with the same reverence as the likes of Heath for the state-led, essentially social-democratic way of doing things that had been the British response to the recession of the thirties and the threat of fascism, and which would be the basis for the post-war consensus.
Instead, from her time at Oxford onwards, she began to read and re-read a book that felt the opposite of reverence for the welfare state, Keynesian economics and other such left-of-centre notions: The Road to Serfdom by Friedrich A. von Hayek. Hayek's book was published in 1944, and Thatcher first encountered it soon afterwards. 'I cannot claim that I fully grasped the implications of Hayek's little masterpiece at this time,' she writes,
[but] at this stage it was the … unanswerable criticisms of socialism in The Road to Serfdom which had an impact. Hayek saw that Nazism – national socialism – had its roots in nineteenth-century German social planning. He showed that intervention by the state in one area of the economy or society gave rise to almost irresistible pressures to extend planning further … Nor did Hayek mince his words about the monopolistic tendencies of the planned society which professional groups and trade unions would inevitably seek to exploit. Each demand for security, whether of employment, income or social position, implied the exclusion … of those outside the particular privileged group – and would generate demands for countervailing privileges from the excluded groups. Eventually, in such a situation everyone will lose. Perhaps because he did not come from a British Conservative background … Hayek had none of the inhibitions which characterized the agonized social conscience of the English upper classes when it came to speaking bluntly about such things.
The Road to Serfdom and its heretical notions caused a sensation. With wartime paper rationing, print runs were unable to keep up with demand. Hostile volumes were published in response. During the 1945 general-election campaign, Winston Churchill crudely distilled Hayek's already pungent thesis into his claim that the Labour Party, if elected, would require 'some form of Gestapo'. But what most of the book's early readers, including the chemistry student and president of the Oxford University Conservative Association Margaret Roberts, did not fully realize was that Hayek was much less of a voice in the wilderness than he liked to make out. He was part of an intellectual movement, radically right-wing in orientation and international in scope, that had been working towards a breakthrough for over half a century.
In politics, with all its competitiveness and restlessness, a set of ideas does not have to have reached its peak of influence for a counterrevolution to already be under way. Left-wing ideologies that threaten or seem to threaten powerful vested interests may be particularly prone to being usurped in this way. So it was in Britain in the late nineteenth century. Just as trade unions were beginning to become properly established, and just as government intervention to lessen the brutalities of the Victorian economy and society was beginning to be broadly accepted, so the first campaigns were launched for a return to a more robust national order. The Liberty and Property Defence League was typical. Founded by landowners and industrialists in 1882, its purpose, said one of its members, Lord Brabourne, was to oppose 'undue interference by the State, and to encourage self-help vs. State help'. As a brusque summary of what would become the modern right-wing mindset, it was almost worthy of Margaret Thatcher.
But the long rise of the British Left and British state had decades to run. Through the Edwardian era, the First World War and the interwar period, both continued to expand. By the thirties, the Liberty and Property Defence League had disappeared, and the small scattering of writers, academics and pressure groups who continued to promote its free-market values were widely regarded as out-of-date cranks. Yet for these beleaguered right-wingers there was one remaining source of encouragement and intellectual nourishment. In Austria, an attachment to small government and unfettered capitalism endured in the universities. Economists such as Ludwig von Mises were fierce defenders of the principles of 'classical' free-market thought, as originally and famously set out by Adam Smith in The Wealth of Nations in 1776. Von Mises was also a penetrating critic of the growing vogue for state intervention in the economy, which had taken hold across Europe and the rich world, among political parties and governments of the Left and Right alike. State planning and capitalism, he argued, were fundamentally incompatible; combined, they would lead to inefficiency and, ultimately, an economic crisis.
This analysis was echoed and developed by Hayek, who was a colleague at the University of Vienna. 'The Austrian School', as the Viennese economists became known, began to attract international attention. In 1931, the LSE, the British university most receptive to free-market thinking, offered Hayek a professorship. For the next two decades, he and a few LSE allies mounted an often lonely campaign against the Keynesian orthodoxies that pervaded academia and government. There were occasional victories, such as the success of The Road to Serfdom, but most of the time it was the slow business of making converts and hoping they would achieve influence.
Margaret Thatcher may have been deeply affected by Hayek's book, but she spent the late forties and the fifties taken up with less philosophical matters. She married Denis, a divorced Tory businessman who ran a sometimes struggling paint and chemicals business. She gave birth to twins, the level-headed Carol and the more challenging Mark. She moved out of chemistry and into law, significantly specializing as a tax barrister. And she struggled for a decade to find a winnable parliamentary seat. Only in fleeting moments in her pithy, combative speeches – when she attacked excessive public spending, or portrayed socialism as a threat to freedom – did she reveal Hayek's influence.
A more charming young Conservative would act as the crucial go-between between the party and the Austrian economist through the post-war period and far into the seventies. Ralph Harris was a quick and irreverent working-class north Londoner who had been introduced to Hayek's work in the forties by one of the Austrian's few supporters at Cambridge University. In 1956, another Hayek disciple, a right-wing poultry magnate called Antony Fisher, hired Harris as the first director of the pioneering political think tank he had set up the year before, the Institute of Economic Affairs. Over the next quarter of a century, the IEA would act as the ideas factory and embassy of a new British conservatism. Harris would end up being nominated by Thatcher to go to the Lords as Lord Harris of High Cross. 'It was your foundation work which enabled us to rebuild,' she wrote to him and his IEA colleagues a few days after becoming prime minister. 'The debt we owe to you is immense.'
On a sparkling August morning in 2006, I went to see Harris at his home in the north London suburbs. He lived in High Barnet, at the end of the Northern line, among the big horse chestnut trees and detached houses that mark the outermost, most Tory-inclined parts of the capital. His flat was a few minutes' walk from the underground station, but he insisted on picking me up. As I waited outside the station in the sunshine, I thought uncharitable thoughts about the Thatcherites' famous love for the car. Then a brand-new hatchback drew up and an eighty-year-old man jumped out. Harris was wearing a yellow cravat, a pale, wide-brimmed hat, a tweed jacket in a dapper faint check, enormous black-framed glasses and a moustache straight from the forties. As we drove off, he immediately started talking about his new car and, more unexpectedly, about Nabokov. 'I've just read Speak, Memory,' he said in a high, quick, infectious voice. He smiled and shook his head in wonderment. A minute later, we pulled up outside a huge Georgian house on a hill. Harris ushered me into a long flat on the ground floor with a proudly suburban cream colour scheme and orchids in the rooms. 'We always have orchids,' said Harris with enthusiasm.
We sat down with biscuits and coffee, and he started by talking about his childhood in Labour Tottenham. 'My family were great Churchill fans, and I've always revelled in being part of the awkward squad. The Tottenham grammar school was right next to Tottenham Hotspur football ground. I affected to be a supporter of Arsenal.' He paused and gave a jolly smile. 'To stir up mischief and good argument.' After studying economics at Cambridge – 'I was already totally sure of the [pro-] market propositions' – he stood as a Conservative parliamentary candidate in Scotland at the 1951 and 1955 general elections. 'I was received as a bloody Tory,' he recalled. 'The atmosphere was wholly hostile to the right-wing position.'
In fact, the Conservatives, while in decline, were still the biggest party in Scotland in the early fifties. But a sense of embattlement, real or contrived, is often crucial to political crusades, and at least when it came to economics, the isolation of right-wingers like Harris was genuine: 'All the most publicized economists were on the left. The Keynesians claimed almighty power.' He leaned forward in his chair and a hint of contempt entered his voice: 'A lot of socialism is fine – well-expressed ambitions, lofty goals. But as for actual mechanisms for operating an economy, to get people working' – he threw up his hands – 'completely lacking. It was a kind of madness! You can't protect jobs that are going out of fashion. It was preposterous that intelligent people would defend this system. It couldn't last.'
By contrast, the insights of Adam Smith and the Austrian School seemed to him solid and rigorous. 'It was objective, the market view of the world. We had been getting wealthier right through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. At Cambridge, I had been influenced by the improvements in mortality that occurred during that period.' Harris leaned further forward, and his hand gestures grew bigger. 'The market is at once expansive and flexible … It's a marvellous mechanism. It's a cure-all. In the fifties and afterwards, I thought' – he slapped a fist into an open palm – '"Why won't they see it?"'
The idea of the IEA was threefold: first, to propagandize for market economics; second, to apply its insights to post-war Britain's problems; and, third, to make converts. The think tank was unsqueamishly funded by the large profits from Fisher's poultry business – he had been the first Briton to introduce American-style battery farming – and by donations from other right-wing businessmen, including James Goldsmith. At the same time, the IEA insisted on keeping its distance from the Conservatives and partisan politics in general, hence the institute's bland, neutral-sounding name and its official status: 'The Institute is an educational charity,' pointed out Harris in a 1977 paperback summing up the IEA's work so far. 'In the early years … we reluctantly took and won four legal actions for libel against papers and politicians who mistook the findings of disinterested scholarship for the partisan promotion of interests.'
From the fifties until well into the eighties, Harris's most important collaborator in the production and dissemination of 'disinterested scholarship' – in the form of a near-constant flow of books and pamphlets – was the IEA's editorial director, Arthur Seldon. Seldon was another working-class Londoner and Hayek disciple, yet he was not a Tory; he had previously been a socialist and then a member of the small, frustrated wing of the Liberal Party that advocated free-market economics. He and Harris were different in other ways too. 'Arthur had a slight speech impediment,' Harris remembered, 'but he wrote marvellously clear, lucid, masculine prose. He loved correcting galleys, punctuation, grammar.' He paused. 'I am by nature very convivial. Like to get people cheerful. I work on my quips sometimes.' Residual political tensions also endured between them: 'Arthur believed in fixed exchange rates. I believed in floating ones. He believed in education vouchers. I believed in fees for education. We didn't ever argue against each other publicly. I was perfectly happy to argue for education vouchers in public. There had to be a collective view …' Because the IEA was trying to achieve influence? 'Yes. If you were forever bickering over nuances …' Harris made a sour face: 'The left wing were always bickering.'
The IEA's books and pamphlets covered subjects from shopping to trade unions to government control of the money supply, and were written by academics, politicians and journalists with left-wing as well as right-wing credentials. Yet there was a campaigning discipline about the publications. 'The titles were always two words, three words,' Harris remembered. And those words, and the words of the text that followed, were always attention-seeking, combative, direct, didactic. This is the opening of All Capitalists Now, written by 'an independent economic consultant' and IEA trustee called Graham Hutton in 1960:
We all want to be better off. It is probably the first time in human history that everyone in the world wants to be better off at once. So there is a worldwide shortage of the things that make people better off: machines, vehicles, highways, human skills …
Free of the thickets of jargon and qualifiers that usually rendered economic pamphlets impenetrable to all but the specialist, the IEA's publications quickly laid out a seemingly open and fresh intellectual landscape. 'The space devoted to [them] by newspapers, and particularly by the oft-despised popular press,' wrote Harris with satisfaction in 1961, 'suggests that their subjects have been topical and … attention-compelling.'
The IEA's output was not without its moments of poor judgement and strained logic. The institute spent much of the early sixties arguing that, in Harris's words at the time, 'fears of unemployment and widespread poverty' belonged to 'a vanished period', and that the British economy was therefore healthy enough to be opened up to more vigorous competition. By the seventies, the IEA was arguing instead that the British economy was terminally weak – but still in need of a dose of the same free-market medicine. Whatever the question the institute's pamphlets posed, their answer, it seemed, was basically identical: less government, lower taxes, more freedom for business and consumers. Harris did not think there was anything wrong with such consistency. 'When you have a clear view of the market,' he told me, sitting back in his chair now with his arms folded, 'you have answers to all occasions and situations.' Was the IEA's degree of certainty akin to religious belief? 'Yes.'
Yet the convivial Harris recognized that, at least to begin with, the institute's teachings would seem challenging and austere to nonbelievers. 'The free market is rather a cold distillation,' he admitted in a brief pause from singing its praises. 'Emotion is opposed to the free market. It's rough and insensitive.' To win converts, the IEA would need to seduce as well as lecture. It would need to invite people to lunch. 'I thought, "People are going to come to the IEA. They ought to go away feeling they'd enjoyed themselves."'
Three times a week during the sixties and seventies, at 12.45 p.m. sharp, small groups of journalists, politicians and businessmen would arrive for drinks at the IEA offices. Since the fifties, the institute's premises had moved steadily upmarket, from a basement in Hobart Place in Victoria to Eaton Square in Belgravia to a whole Georgian house in Lord North Street – in all senses probably the best-connected street in Westminster, only a minute or two on foot from the Commons and both the Conservative and Labour Party headquarters. But the feel of the gatherings remained the same. 'We had a good table, as they say,' Harris recalled. 'A lovely family cooked the food downstairs, brought it to the table. They tended to give too large portions. I used to tell them, "Put less on their plates! We're paying for this!"'
There would be wine and coffee, and forthright discussion, either about the latest IEA publication or with a visiting free-market thinker. To keep things relatively amicable – and the identities of those attending private – politicians from opposing parties would never be invited to the same lunch. Conveniently for busy guests, the whole thing would be over by 2.30 p.m. Refusals were rare. 'The only person I ever remember saying "Do not ask me to your lunches" was a Labour MP.' Harris rolled his eyes. 'A totally uncivilized response. I thought, "Come, and argue it out!"' Occasionally, right-wing guests would be invited for a less free-ranging conversation: 'We had "punitive" lunches for people we thought had let the side down. I remember a chap from the Confederation of British Industry who had embraced [Wilson's] national plan …'
More often, Harris and Seldon would receive guests who were in varying states of readiness to become free-market converts. Brian Walden, in the mid-seventies still a Labour MP but moving rapidly rightwards, 'came on condition it would be private. He told us, "Wilson is a fraud and a cheat. I shall deny it completely if you go public. I'll pursue you and even sue you."' Harris stopped for a moment. 'Fascinating chap. Spoke with a strange accent. He became a scalp that we treasured. Later, he would often have our chaps on his television programmes.' There were other disillusioned left-wingers: 'A trade unionist came and talked of the madness of the government building unnecessary steel plants … An ex-Tribunite [socialist] MP gave us the phrase "the dignity of choice".' Harris beamed: 'Amazing turncoats! I would call them that privately,' he hastily added. 'They completely fulfilled our expectation that if people thought … they would come back to the market.'
However, even among the 'opinion makers' the IEA was focused on, assembling a critical mass of supporters was expected to be a protracted task. 'When we set up the institute, we thought this battle would occupy the rest of our lives,' Harris told me with slightly theatrical graveness. 'But twenty years later' – he suddenly beamed again – 'we had Thatcher. Far quicker than we imagined!'
Along with Geoffrey Howe, Keith Joseph and Enoch Powell, Thatcher began visiting the IEA and reading its publications during the early sixties. First as a junior pensions minister with an interest in trimming the welfare state, and then, later in the decade, as a shadow minister for power and then transport who made outspoken Commons speeches attacking the nationalized industries as oppressive and inefficient, she increasingly echoed the institute's thinking. Seldon wrote to Howe in late 1969: 'She said one day here [at the IEA] that she was one of a small group of Tory politicians like Enoch, Keith and you who saw the value of the market …'
A few months later, the Conservatives returned to power and Thatcher, Joseph and Howe were all given positions in Heath's Cabinet. Like the prime minister – 'I had hopes of him,' said Harris, 'but they dissipated quickly' – the three Tory right-wingers proved much less radical in office than the IEA had hoped, and their relationship with the institute loosened during the early seventies. 'I can remember Margaret Thatcher coming to an IEA lunch in the Heath [government] doldrums,' Harris recalled. 'She was wearing one of her spectacular hats. She made a very dogmatic statement about her reaction to people who supported socialism: where was the best place to do their shopping, the Co-op or Sainsbury's? she'd ask them. I thought it was pretty straightforward, direct stuff. I can't say I thought, "This is the woman."'
At times, communication between the IEA and the Tory right-wingers cooled to the point of frostiness. In February 1972, after reading an article Seldon had written about the excessive cost of the welfare state, Howe wrote to the IEA man: 'Opinion in favour of the [cost-cutting] policies you mentioned turns out to carry less weight than militant [public] response … to even quite modest applications of those policies e.g. on school milk …' In turn, Seldon wrote at the foot of Howe's letter: 'Not convinced by these public schoolboys!'
Thatcher was hardly that. But as education secretary, her first Cabinet position, she found herself in charge of a large and slow-to-change government department to which the insights of Hayek, Harris and Seldon could not be straightforwardly applied. Schools and universities did not (yet) constitute a market that could be liberalized. They consumed large and growing amounts of state spending, with the strong approval of the public, and they relied on members of the potent teaching unions to staff them. In her memoirs, Thatcher blames the alien political culture she found in education for 'my difficulties with the department': 'The ethos … was self-righteously socialist.' Her failure to make much impact could also be put down to inexperience and a political skin that had yet to achieve its later near-impregnable thickness: during the 'milk snatcher' row, she writes, 'I was hurt and upset.' Finally, there was Heath's lack of respect for her. When she talked too much in Cabinet meetings, as she often did, he would irritably drum his fingers on his blotter.
In her autobiography, Thatcher explains her broader failure to stand up for the free market during his government with some uncharacteristic self-criticism, and with some uncomfortable home truths for right-wingers about Heath's hold over British politics in the early seventies:
I was not a member of Ted's inner circle where most of the big decisions originated … Ted Heath [was] an honest man whose strength of character made him always formidable, whether right or wrong … [his policies] were urged on him by most influential commentators and for much of the time enjoyed a wide measure of public support … There were brave and farsighted critics … But they were an embattled, isolated group. Although my reservations steadily grew, I was not at this stage among them.
Yet, in one sense, her readiness to ignore the IEA as a Cabinet minister was a sign not of weakness but of strength. By the early seventies, with her strong, unflappable voice and finishing-school posture, her immense private determination and ability to be disarmingly flirtatious, with what her speechwriter Ronald Millar called 'her senior girl-scout freshness' in a political world made up of increasingly tired, older men, Margaret Thatcher was already much more than a vehicle for the ideas of economists and think-tank geniuses. She was a political original, with her own ideas about when to listen to the theorists and when to follow her instincts. At one IEA lunch before she became Conservative leader, Harris told her grandly: 'Our aim is to create a new consensus about the market.' Thatcher shot back: 'Consensus? Don't use that word!'
With the collapse and humiliation of the Heath government in February 1974, the political climate was favourable again to less consensual forms of Toryism, and the ex-education secretary had time on her hands. 'I renewed my reading of the seminal works of liberal economics and conservative thought,' she writes. 'I also regularly attended lunches at the Institute of Economic Affairs where Ralph Harris, Arthur Seldon … [and] all those who had been right when we in Government had gone so badly wrong … were busy marking out a new path for Britain.'
Over the summer, she also became more formally involved with a new free-market think tank, as vice-chair of the Centre for Policy Studies (CPS). As with the IEA, there was a faintly cloak-and-dagger element to the CPS's activities, starting with its deliberately anodyne name. Founded by Keith Joseph with Heath's permission, its official purpose was to investigate how capitalism worked in continental Europe, and particularly in Germany, where more long-term business thinking and better cooperation between employers and trade unions than in Britain was producing enviable economic results.
In practice, the CPS did nothing of the sort. Instead, it became the base for the next stage of the British right-wing counter-revolution. While the IEA worked to change the intellectual status quo, the CPS took on a more practical role: to come up with radical policies that would get the Conservatives into government and enable them to change the country once they got there. In many ways, the task of the CPS was as forbidding as that of its predecessor. For the first year of the think tank's existence, Heath was still party leader. He and most Tories continued to dismiss the free marketeers as Victorian throwbacks and intellectual lightweights. 'When Keith [Joseph] made his first big free-market speech in 1974,' Peter Walker told me, 'I said to him, "What are you going to do about the velocity of money?", and there was a glazed look in Keith's face.'
Even after Thatcher became leader, moreover, it was by no means guaranteed that the Conservatives as a whole – let alone enough voters to elect a government – would learn to love the Austrian School. The CPS would need political operators with keen minds and sharp elbows. In the Tory politics of the mid-to-late seventies, there were few people, besides Thatcher herself, with a greater abundance of those qualities than Alfred Sherman.
A middle-aged woman with a stern expression answered the door at Sherman's Kensington apartment. 'You know that Sir Alfred is very unwell,' she said. It was a dim summer morning in 2006, and the hallway of his mansion-block flat was heavy with paintings. When the woman finished speaking, a deep silence came from the surrounding rooms. She showed me into the largest. It had leather sofas, a huge modernist glass table with a reading light in curved chrome, Japanese prints on the walls and a view of London rooftops. In a chair facing away from the bay window was an old man in boxer shorts and a half-buttoned shirt. His head was back and his eyes were closed, and his skin was like parchment wrapping bones. As I approached, the eyes opened to slits and, in a dry wheeze of a voice, hard to place except for a very faint East End rasp, Alfred Sherman told me to sit down.
There was no small talk. 'The Conservative Party in the seventies was unimpressive,' he said in answer to my first question, keeping his head tilted right back. 'The whole point about being a Conservative was that you didn't question. Margaret's shadow cabinet – the last thing they wanted was change.' What about Keith Joseph? 'Keith was all over the place. He wanted change, but he was frightened of change. And he didn't want to annoy his friends.' And Geoffrey Howe? 'Geoffrey swum with the tide.' Sherman took a long breath. Was there no one in the seventies that he considered an ally? 'No one. The IEA were in a narrow compass. And they were slightly jealous of me.' Surely he had intellectual allies? '[Milton] Friedman was a good economist. Hayek. That was all.' And Thatcher herself? Suddenly there was almost a smile on Sherman's thin lips. 'She came from Grantham with her mind made up. She brought Grantham with her. I doubt whether she ever read Hayek.' Could any conclusions be drawn from her rise? The smile turned to disdain: 'It was chance.'
Sherman's own rise to prominence as the effective head of the CPS and Thatcher's most important adviser in the mid-and late seventies was a political journey that made hers seem straightforward. He had been born in the East End in 1919. His parents were poor Russian Jewish immigrants, his father a Labour councillor. Alfred – precocious, always certain in his opinions – joined the Communist Party as a teenager. 'As a communist, I learned to think big,' he wrote in his memoirs, 'to believe that, aligned with the forces of history, a handful of people of sufficient faith could move mountains.' When the Spanish Civil War broke out, he went to fight for the Republicans and became a machine-gunner. His faith in communism survived the Republican defeat, the Second World War, and even a post-war period as an economics student at the LSE, yet it started to unravel when he visited Yugoslavia in the late forties. 'Communism as religion-substitute', he wrote later, with typically barbed terseness, 'has the disadvantage of susceptibility to judgement by results.'
The same could be said of free-market economics. Nevertheless, it became Sherman's new creed in the fifties. First in Israel and then back in Britain, he established a successful dual career as a freelance political adviser and polemical journalist, in particular for the Daily Telegraph. In the late sixties, he met Keith Joseph. Joseph was already becoming a free marketeer, but Sherman sharpened up his rhetoric and his thinking. 'I was able to "turn" him,' writes Sherman, revealingly slipping into the language of double agents and espionage. When Heath's government fell in February 1974, Sherman felt that Joseph's moment had come. For six months, the two intense men met and talked, conceived of the CPS and worked on Joseph's increasingly high-profile speeches. Also present and influential at some of the meetings was the iconoclastic right-wing British economist Alan Walters. He argued that one of the major causes of the country's rising inflation was the readiness of the Heath government and its post-war predecessors to simply print more money when in economic difficulties. Instead, he said, the money supply should be closely controlled, an economic philosophy that was beginning to become known as monetarism. Another intermittent guest at the gatherings was Margaret Thatcher. At this stage, she was publicly backing Joseph for the Tory leadership rather than standing herself. But, characteristically, she was eager to learn. And like any ambitious politician, she was keeping her options open.
During this period, Sherman hoped that a series of carefully staged attacks by Joseph on the post-war consensus, the first by such a senior Conservative, would transform the national economic debate and attract attention and funds to the CPS. Over the summer, Joseph's melodramatic rejection of Keynesianism – 'thirty years of good intentions; thirty years of disappointments' – and sudden announcement of his conversion to monetarism began to do just that. Then came his 'eugenics' speech. Sherman had helped draft it, but with reservations about the Pandora's box Joseph seemed intent on opening. Joseph's failure to cope with the speech's repercussions convinced Sherman he could not become Conservative leader, let alone prime minister. 'It was obvious he didn't have it,' Sherman told me, a sudden hiss of contempt in his voice, lolling back in his chair like some predator eyeing a weak and doomed animal. 'Not tough enough.'
In fact, the two of them remained close collaborators at the CPS, but Sherman transferred his primary loyalties to Thatcher. He did not know her well: they had not met until 1974. Yet even before then he had been impressed by 'the force of her beliefs', as he put it in his memoirs, and had been telling prominent Tories he knew that she had a chance of succeeding Heath as party leader. 'Margaret grasped opportunities when they arose,' Sherman said to me. 'She never worried and looked backward.' Thatcher identified in him a similar aggression and originality: 'Alfred had his own kind of brilliance,' she wrote. 'He brought his convert's zeal … his breadth of reading and his skills as a ruthless polemicist … The force and clarity of his mind, and his complete disregard for other people's feelings or opinion of him …' During her leadership campign, he informally advised her and lobbied for her behind the scenes at the Daily Telegraph. Afterwards, he assumed a larger role. 'I put the words into her mouth,' he told me. In his memoirs, Sherman offered a little more humility and detail: 'During her first two years as Leader … Mrs Thatcher made over a dozen speeches outlining her philosophy and policy prescriptions. We worked on these speeches day and night, particularly of an evening and weekend at her home in Flood Street, Chelsea …'
The Thatchers had bought their broad, almost gardenless terraced house just off the King's Road in west London in 1972. After her election as leader in 1975, it would prove increasingly useful to her as a private base and public symbol. Appropriately for a politician keen to associate herself with a particular version of 'middle-class values', the house looked prosperous but not grand or pretentious. Instead of the draughty sash windows and vulnerable Georgian stucco favoured by the capital's swelling left-inclined professional classes, Flood Street was solid to the point of blandness: a squat early-twentieth-century facade, almost characterless clean brickwork, roses in the small paved front yard. It could have been in a Surrey commuter town rather than still-gentrifying and bohemian Chelsea, with Malcolm McLaren and the Sex Pistols plotting a revolution of their own a little further along the King's Road. One evening in the late seventies, Kingsley Amis, then moving firmly and publicly rightwards in his politics, was invited to dinner, along with the right-wing historian Robert Conquest and a right-wing sociologist:
No. 19 Flood Street is one of those neat little joints between the King's Road and the Chelsea Embankment, comfortable … and decorated in a boldly unadventurous style … I was rather overcome with the occasion and the fairly close propinquity of Mrs T … very much a new face to me as to most people, too much so to take in a lot about the fare except that it was properly unimaginative, and, as regards drink, ample enough. The hostess wore one of those outfits that seem to have more detail in them than is common, with, I particularly remember, finely embroidered gold-and-scarlet collarand cuffs to her blouse … [She was] one of the best-looking women I had ever met and for her age … remarkable.
Sherman's encounters with the Tory leader at Flood Street were more focused but had the same backdrop of old-fashioned domesticity. 'Every phrase, every word', he wrote later, 'had to earn her approval (in contrast to Keith Joseph, who often accepted and delivered speeches after a cursory reading). In addition, she fed us, sometimes preparing the food in the kitchen while talking to us around the dining room table.' On these evenings and weekends, Sherman was often accompanied by Thatcher's parliamentary private secretaries John Stanley and Adam Butler. But he was the dominant influence on her: he gave her one-on-one lectures, he wrote her fierce memos, and he could type faster than anyone else when deadlines and late-night exhaustion beckoned.
However, like most rising opposition leaders, Thatcher had a huge and promiscuous hunger for advisers and lieutenants. Besides the Flood Street regulars, there was Joseph, still a mentor and the free marketeers' John the Baptist figure. There was Geoffrey Howe, whom she appointed shadow chancellor, and who had been a monetarist and a foe of over-mighty trade unions for at least as long as her. There was Norman Strauss, a marketing man from Unilever, who was almost as abrasive and clever as Sherman and advised Thatcher to be a confrontational 'conviction' politician. There was John Hoskyns, sometimes Strauss's collaborator, who had built up a pioneering computer business, developed an interest in cybernetics, the study of complex systems, and drawn up a giant diagram of the workings of the British economy, which concluded that the unions were the central problem. There were also Harris and Seldon, who had long been coming to similar conclusions at the IEA. There were all the less well-known pamphleteers and speechwriters at that think tank and the CPS. There were the growing number of noisy free-market converts working at British newspapers, such as Samuel Brittan, the senior Financial Times columnist, and William Rees-Mogg, the editor of The Times. There was the continuing lineage of right-wing professors at the LSE. There was Milton Friedman, their more famous American counterpart and early monetarist, who won the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1976 and was part of the now-thriving international network of right-wing economists that had grown out of the Austrian School. And finally, there was Hayek himself, who had jointly won the same prize in 1974 and who, like Friedman, was a regular presence at the IEA and CPS and at the court of Thatcher itself.
Naturally, not all these people agreed with each other or uncritically supported the Tory leader. Some, such as Brittan, were libertarians and anxious about her apparent lack of interest in non-economic freedoms. Some, such as Strauss and Hoskyns, came from nonpolitical backgrounds. Some, such as Howe, were privately appalled at the methods employed by the likes of Sherman: 'too zealous', wrote Howe in his autobiography. 'Good ideas all too often lost their charm.' And, of course, the natural competitiveness of politics and the sheer number of courtiers – by 1979, the Conservatives had ninety-six concurrent 'policy groups' – generated its own tensions and contradictions. Some of these would linger unresolved in Tory politics well after the seventies were over.
Yet, from the mid-seventies on, there was unmistakably a new mood in British right-wing politics: a new set of ideas and a new determination. 'Something had to be done,' said Sherman from his armchair, still wheezing but his diction, as always, clear, hard-edged. 'Britain had a ruling class that was no longer capable of ruling. The whole system, the trade unions, the civil service – third-raters.' For a few seconds, he lifted his head and leaned forward. 'You are put on this earth to do something, and you do it.' Then he picked up a dented old radio from a nearby table and switched on Radio 4 for the midday news. 'I think we've had enough,' he said. Four weeks later, he was dead.
Whether the abrasive new mood of the British Right matched the mood of the country was another question, and it was one to which the Flood Street and IEA radicals had so far devoted little attention. 'I didn't take much notice of opinion polls,' Ralph Harris told me. 'Didn't look at how the public were living.' He and his allies, like most revolutionaries, were in the business of leading, not following.
Yet there were some encouraging signs, if they cared to look. 'Liberal baiting by 1976 had become a major hobby,' wrote Peter York in Style Wars, his account of changing tastes and attitudes among fashionable Londoners during the seventies. 'You only had to talk about a social worker or an ethnic print dress … to get a laugh. Styles got really tight and aggressive, all the big floppy shambolic post-hippy styles started to disappear from 1975 on … [And] the Conservative radicals were sounding really sharp.' York expanded on these observations when I met him. 'People were fascinated by the Thatcher thing,' he said. 'She seemed to be confident, had shiny surfaces. People were very interested in the idea that Thatcher was a good business. She seemed to know about modern spin.' At the same time, Britain's sixties-derived hippy and liberal cultures were seen as both obsolete and suffocatingly ubiquitous: 'In Britain in the mid-seventies, mass hippiedom was all around. Yet the hippies and the liberals appeared to come from another age. A lot of people during the seventies absolutely lost sight of what the [sixties] struggle had originally been about.'
This impatience with the status quo and interest in the new Tory alternative to it was not confined to the cultural and nightclub elite York mixed with. At the February 1974 election, the Sun, until then a Labour paper, did not back a party: 'We're Sick of the Ted and Harold Show'. During the seventies, almost all the national newspapers were afflicted by bad industrial relations and the high rate of inflation – the price of newsprint, for example, doubled between 1970 and 1975. Consciously or unconsciously, these problems most likely contributed to the apocalyptic tone of much of their British news and comment. The Sun was a particularly troubled paper. Although its circulation and influence were growing rapidly, it had some of the worst facilities for staff and some of the most frequent union-orchestrated stoppages. Readers responded to incomplete or lost editions with letters to the paper full of fury towards unions in general. The editor Larry Lamb, once left-of-centre like his daily, became a committed anti-union campaigner. Margaret Thatcher, a few years earlier the Sun's 'Most Unpopular Woman in Britain', would by the late seventies regularly come into the paper's offices to have a whisky with him after the first edition had been sent to the printers. The Tory leader would be at her most flirtatious and deferential. In return, Lamb provided her with advice about how to promote herself in the tabloids, and coverage so favourable that the Sun's owner Rupert Murdoch, mindful of the paper's many remaining Labour readers, would phone Lamb and ask him: 'Are you still pushing that bloody woman?'
In some less direct, less tangible ways, too, British popular culture was becoming more hospitable again to right-wing conservatism. In 1971, Mary Whitehouse, the founder of the National Viewers' and Listeners' Association and campaigner since the sixties against 'moral collapse', revived her profile by helping to organize a large evangelical rally, the 'Festival of Light', at Westminster Central Hall in London. The illiberal nature of the event – homosexuality was among the 'sins' condemned from the stage – provoked a typically ingenious counter-demonstration by the GLF, including the infiltration of the hall by activists dressed as nuns, who kissed and released mice in the aisles. But Whitehouse was not deterred and, as the decade went on, and 'the permissive society' became a steadily more common term of abuse, it grew harder to say whether she represented the last of an old sensibility or the beginning of a new one. With her starchy appearance, Midlands origins and utter relentlessness, Whitehouse was even a little like an older, primmer Margaret Thatcher. In 1977, after Gay News published a poem about a Roman centurion's love for Jesus, Whitehouse became the first person for over fifty years to successfully sue for blasphemous libel. The jury split ten to two in her favour, and she won again in the House of Lords when Gay News appealed. The carefree iconoclasm of the early days of gay liberation suddenly seemed from another age.
There were other straws in the wind. In 1976, two non-traditional art exhibits at state-owned galleries attracted hostility on a scale that felt significant and political. At the Tate, a low, rectangular arrangement of 120 bricks by the American sculptor Carl Andre, ten years old and quietly titled Equivalent VIII, was vandalized and condemned by the tabloids as a decadent waste of taxpayers' money. At the Institute of Contemporary Arts, the more obviously provocative Prostitution by the artists' collective COUM Transmissions, which included used sanitary towels and pictures of a member of COUM in porn magazines, became an overheated metaphor in newspaper editorials about Britain's economic and spiritual decline. The Conservative MP Nicholas Fairbairn denounced COUM as 'Wreckers of Civilization'. And, as with 'the Tate bricks', the fact that a challenging artwork had obtained government assistance received particular condemnation. Since the early sixties, the British state had steadily become more liberal in many ways. Now, limits to that permissiveness seemed to be being set by the media and the broader culture.
A disenchantment with liberalism and a fascination with something fiercer began to show up everywhere, from comics – 2000 AD's strip about a lantern-jawed, semi-fascist lawman of the future, Judge Dredd, which started in 1977 – to prime-time television dramas. In the hugely popular cop series The Sweeney, first broadcast between 1975 and 1978, the central theme, always there amid the screech of brakes and beery backchat, was the need for the police to get round the rules imposed on them by decades of soft-hearted bureaucrats: to put the fear of God into criminals again, take part in gun battles, behave like a gang themselves. And there was often time as well for a little bleak comment on other issues. As one of the detectives put it in the third series, like Hayek in a laddish brown leather jacket, 'What's inflation going to do to your cut by 2001?'
But the most promising evidence of all for a political sea change was the number of prominent converts to the Tory cause. By 1978, there were enough defectors from the Left for their stories to fill a book, Right Turn, edited by the Conservative MP Patrick Cormack. They included Reg Prentice, a Labour Cabinet minister only two years earlier; Lord Chalfont, a Labour minister in the sixties and, until 1974, a Labour peer; the ubiquitous journalist Paul Johnson, who had been editor of the New Statesman from 1965 to 1970; Kingsley Amis; and the historian Hugh Thomas, a famous authority on the Spanish Civil War and a former Labour Party member and prospective parliamentary candidate.
They gave diverse reasons for moving rightwards. Prentice cited Margaret Thatcher's 'courage and integrity': 'She is making no attempt to offer false comfort and easy options … She is challenging the British people to choose the bumpy ride to a free society.' More often, he and the others emphasized their dissatisfactions: at the trade union 'mob' they saw at work in recent industrial disputes; at the whiff of class warfare in Labour's recent general-election manifestos; at the rise of Tony Benn; at the whole recent expansion of the British state – in Johnson's words, '… The burgeoning bureaucrats of local and central government; the new breed of "administrators" who control schools, hospitals and even the arts; sociology lecturers … so-called social workers with their glib pseudo-solutions to non-problems …' Unifying all these arguments, which were not always individually convincing, was the allegation that the British post-war consensus was evolving into a kind of socialist one-party state, the sort of monolith Hayek had warned about in The Road to Serfdom. 'The authors of these essays have turned right,' Cormack wrote in his introduction, 'because they believe there is a real risk that our society will be replaced by the sort of … tyranny that so many millions suffer under, and seek to escape from, in Eastern Europe.'
Johnson, characteristically, went further. One element of this 'tyranny', he wrote, had already arrived: 'the manifest preference' of the Labour government for 'determining policy not in the arena of Parliament … but in secret and unrecorded talks with union leaders'. Johnson was correct that such meetings took place, and that they were central to the workings of the Labour government in the mid-and late seventies. This arrangement between Labour and the unions even had an official name: the social contract. But it was not the impregnable alliance he imagined.
12
A Relationship of Forces
In the south-east corner of Smith Square in Westminster stand a pair of ponderous twenties buildings. Seven storeys of dull brick, rows of narrow windows, fussy little columns at the entrances: the offices of the Local Government Association are uninspiring even by the standards of the area's bureaucratic anthills. On a wet February lunchtime, a determinedly enthusiastic press officer gave me a tour. There was not much to detain us. We passed glass partitions, new pale wood, aubergine walls – the bland esperanto of modern office decor. 'This place was in a really, really poor state when we took it over in '98,' the press officer said briskly. 'Derelict. Lots of tiny offices. No furniture. Mess on the floor. We went round with torches.' She raised her eyebrows. 'It used to be a real warren when the T&G and Labour had it.'
Between 1928 and 1981, Transport House, as the interlinked complex was then known, was the headquarters of both the Transport and General Workers' Union and the Labour Party. The TGWU acquired the land for the offices and had them built. It then invited the party to be its tenant. Over the decades the arrangement grew so familiar that 'Transport House' became political correspondents' shorthand for the Labour movement in the same way that Downing Street was shorthand for the government. And for anyone who wondered about the balance of power between the unions and the party, the landlord–tenant relationship in Smith Square gave pause for thought.
During the Labour administrations of the seventies, however, the political interconnections within Transport House became more significant still. At 10.30 a.m. on the third Monday of every month, the top-floor Board Room hosted the meetings of the TUC–Labour Party Liaison Committee. It was a new body, and it oversaw a new and unprecedented collaboration between the unions and government. The arrangement covered everything from workers' pay to state pensions, from food prices to rent. It was known as the social contract.
I asked the press officer if I could see the room, but she said it was in use. Instead, she gave me a photograph. It showed a long, slightly claustrophobic penthouse with panelled walls, high windows and a vast C-shaped conference table. What went on in this space between the Liaison Committee's half-dozen union leaders and half-dozen Labour ministers has not had a good press. This entry for 22 April 1974 from the diary of Barbara Castle, then the social services secretary, is typical:
Up to London early for a meeting of the Liaison Committee … The two sides faced each other across that rather bleak boardroom at Transport House which makes it so difficult to engender enthusiastic intimacy. The TUC anyway are hardly noted for forthcoming enthusiasm at the best of times …
Shirley Williams, another member of Harold Wilson's seventies Cabinet with reservations about the unions, was also on the committee. 'I thought the whole idea of the Liaison Committee was a big mistake,' she told me. 'On constitutional grounds – that union leaders, people with outside interests, should be able to veto things that the government wanted. The meetings were very dull most of the time. I found the TUC conservative, self-interested, fairly sexist, not all that interested in poverty or those not in full-time work. I came away with a slightly stale feeling in my mouth. This was not what I thought democratic socialism was going to be.' Denis Healey just made a face when I asked him about his time on the committee. 'The meetings were a chore,' he said. 'They were often quite difficult.' How did he get on with the union leaders generally at the time? Healey gave a world-weary laugh. 'When I had them to No. 11 Downing Street we used to have beer and sandwiches. But [the TGWU leader] Jack Jones asked for goujons de sole.'
The idea of a 'social contract' between a Labour administration and the unions was first raised by Tony Benn in a pamphlet he published shortly after the party's defeat in the 1970 general election. Relations between the 1964–70 Wilson government and the unions had gone from cool to near-catastrophic, culminating in the public battle over 'In Place of Strife' and the unions' successful rejection of the government's proposals for calming Britain's increasingly volatile industrial relations. 'What is required', concluded Benn in response in 1970, 'is a much closer link … so that there is a two-way flow of information about policy all the time. This information flow is an essential ingredient of all systems … and it has the merit of avoiding the much-publicised eyeball-to-eyeball crunches and confrontations.'
Benn's vision of a smoothly efficient collaborative socialism – he had been minister for technology before the election – was highly optimistic, and his influence on Labour Party policy was limited. But Wilson's union difficulties in the sixties and Ted Heath's even greater ones in the early seventies persuaded Labour that a new approach was needed. At the same time, the fact that the Conservatives were in office and passing anti-union legislation such as the Industrial Relations Act concentrated minds at the TUC. In 1972, the TUC–Labour Party Liaison Committee was set up and the social contract began to solidify. Its precise terms were vague at first. Up to and during the 1974 general elections, the social contract's main purpose was to suggest to voters that Wilson, unlike Heath, could get on with the unions. Yet once Labour were back in office the nature of the party's deal with the TUC became much clearer. In essence, the social contract committed the government to policies the unions wanted – the repeal of the Industrial Relations Act, increased spending on welfare benefits, state-imposed restrictions on the prices of essentials – in return for an undertaking from the unions to accept modest pay rises, agreed with the government, which would not worsen the inflation rate and the already perilous economic situation.
There was from the start an element of wishful thinking about the social contract. Wilson was weakening as a political figure and had a tiny majority, and many union leaders were hard-nosed and pragmatic. Those same trade unionists were having increasing difficulties with militant shop stewards, and with the pay demands of their members in general. Finally, employers and other business interests were excluded from the whole balancing act. 'The social contract was a godsend device at the '74 elections for beating the Tories,' Bernard Donoughue told me. 'But deep down I didn't believe in it.' Yet in the Britain of the mid-seventies, with a government recently deposed by the miners, with the oil-price rise biting, with near-panic infecting parts of Whitehall and the City of London, the social contract seemed to offer a way out of the crisis. Besides, similar alliances between groups of unions and left-wing governments had existed for years and had worked effectively elsewhere in northern Europe. 'The Social Contract', wrote the trade union historian Robert Taylor in 2004, 'looked [at first] to many observers like a far-sighted and practical arrangement.'
That it did owed much to a dry little man from Liverpool with an unyielding murmur of a voice and an instinctive dislike of disorder. Jack Jones had been elected General Secretary of the TGWU in 1968. By the mid-seventies, his union's growing membership, Britain's largest, was approaching 2 million. One trade unionist in six was a member. The TGWU had long been known for its assertive recruiting – it was, after all, a union for 'General Workers' – and its particularly close connections to the Labour Party, but under Jones these characteristics grew much stronger. As Britain's rising unemployment and inflation made life harder for small unions, which lacked the political and shop-floor clout reliably to protect their members, so the TGWU attracted defectors. At the same time, the TGWU's internal political culture – increasingly left-wing, with a strong leader but few other checks on the activities of its shop stewards – was in tune with the mood of British trade unionism from the late sixties to the late seventies.
In February 1973, the Strawbs, a so far modestly successful folk-turned-rock band who had been around in Britain since the early sixties, released a single called 'Part of the Union'. A raucous, ambiguous singalong that was either a satire or a celebration or a condemnation of union power – and quite possibly all of these – it spent three weeks at Number 2 in the charts. Its chorus and best verses went:
Oh you don't get me I'm part of the union
You don't get me I'm part of the union
You don't get me I'm part of the union
till the day I die, till the day I die
…. And I always get my way
If I strike for higher pay
When I show my card
To the Scotland Yard
This is what I say:
Oh you don't get me I'm part of the union
You don't get me I'm part of the union
You don't get me I'm part of the union
till the day I die, till the day I die
…. So though I'm a working man
I can ruin the government's plan
Though I'm not too hard
The sight of my card
Makes me some kind of superman.
Oh you don't get me I'm part of the union
You don't get me I'm part of the union
You don't get me I'm part of the union
till the day I die, till the day I die.
When I met Jones in 2004, he was ninety-one, but as he talked about the status of unions in the mid-seventies he raised and clenched both fists. 'The unions were growing stronger and stronger,' he said in his soft insistent voice. 'They thought they could grasp the world.' A few minutes later, he described the British workforce at the time as a 'huge solid phalanx of industrial workers'. And his hands swept the air as if he was a general gesturing towards his troops from a hilltop.
Jones's authority was personal and moral as well as crudely political. He had grown up in a slum next to the Mersey, in a house that was condemned as unfit for habitation the year he was born. His mother took in lodgers: one ended up as a dead gangster in Chicago. His father drank, worked in the docks and was a low-ranking but committed TGWU activist. Jones himself had 'no more than average educational ability', as he put it in his autobiography Union Man, and followed his father into trade unionism and heavy industry. He spent the Depression years of the twenties and thirties finding and losing jobs, drawing the dole and leading unofficial strikes in the Mersey docks. As a shop steward, he quickly developed a contempt for what he saw as the excessive deference shown to employers by many of the TGWU's more senior officials. But the General Secretary Ernest Bevin earned his approval: 'He did not take a narrow view of trade unionism or his duties as General Secretary … [During] the abdication crisis Bevin considered that Edward VIII was letting down the country … He suggested that Edward was profligate and implied that he was an alcoholic.'
A similar combination of puritanism, patriotism and political expansionism would mark Jones's time as General Secretary. But that was decades away. In 1936, still in his early twenties, he became a Labour city councillor in Liverpool. Then he went to fight in Spain, where he met Ted Heath. He was wounded in his right arm and shoulder, and had to crawl to safety after waiting for nightfall on the battlefield among the dead and dying. Back in England, he resumed his career as a councillor and TGWU official, first in the Mersey docks and then in the Midlands. In Coventry, he found thriving car and aircraft factories and weak union branches, and steadily transformed the TGWU's position: between 1939 and 1955, its membership in the city rose more than tenfold. During the Second World War, with Bevin now minister of labour, Jones also had his first experience of cooperating with the government to further his left-wing goals, winning better wages for local toolmakers in return for recruiting skilled workers for the war effort.
Occasionally, he returned to the rabble-rousing methods of his youth. During one dispute at a car factory in the fifties, he 'lay down in the road and encouraged others to do the same' to stop delivery trucks from entering. But mostly he advanced by conscientiousness and a keen appreciation of the geometries of power. He worked eighteen hours a day. He spoke in an unhurried, level voice as if he expected people to pay attention. He listened carefully, blinking slowly and with his thin lips set in a straight line. There was nothing obviously macho about him: his face was round and owlish, and he dressed reassuringly like a trade unionist from the forties, the labour movement's heroic era. 'Mr Jones must be the last major trade union leader to wear a cloth cap regularly,' noted the Guardian in a 1968 profile. By then, already well into his fifties, he was like a very composed elderly uncle. As an unnamed union leader told Stephen Milligan for his 1976 book The New Barons, 'Jones has a smile like the sunlight glinting on the brass plate of a coffin.'
At ninety-one, his persona was little changed. The TGWU headquarters had moved from Smith Square to Holborn, further from the centre of power, and was housed in an anonymous modern office block with corporations as neighbours. But Jones sat behind a desk, arms folded and watchful, in the corner office he still used several days a week as chairman of the National Pensioners Convention, an organization he had set up for retired trade unionists. He wore a blue suit and waistcoat, and looked about seventy. His cloth cap hung from the coat stand. A plaque commemorating the service of Liverpudlians in the Spanish Civil War hung from the wall. A sense that his life was part of an ongoing, age-old struggle lingered strongly in the room.
I started by asking him about his first years as TGWU General Secretary in the late sixties and early seventies. 'We had our difficulties,' he began, deadpan. 'With Barbara Castle particularly … If it had been left to Barbara, the unions would have been tied up in all sorts of legislation' – he meant the 'In Place of Strife' proposals – 'and the trade union movement could've been considerably curtailed.' In 1969, Jones and his union were crucial to the sinking of 'In Place of Strife' and, with it, Castle's prospects, previously good, of becoming a truly front-rank Labour politician. But behind his desk Jones simply shook his head at her folly and said no more. We moved onto his relationship with Harold Wilson. 'He was a peculiar fellow,' said Jones after a long sigh. 'I never got much out of him. I mean, he wasn't unsympathetic. If I went to see him in Downing Street, he had a little barrel of beer, and we'd have a couple of half pints, as it were. For him, I suppose, that felt friendly enough … But he was a cold, cold man, very cold. You couldn't make the measure of him. Wilson showed no enthusiasm about anything. It was like dealing with a rather cold civil servant all the time, which he was to some extent. There was no passion there. Never was.'
In the early seventies, Jones got on better with Ted Heath. Their Spanish link had a little to do with it, but more significant was Heath's unvarnished manner and his desire, intermittently expressed, for the unions and the government to cooperate in the face of the growing economic crisis. The latter appealed to Jones's patriotism and to his openness to political arrangements that would cement the unions' position. During 1972, Jones was a guest at Chequers, discussed 'wages restraint' with Heath, and helped the Conservative government end a highly damaging national dock strike. 'Heath was not unsympathetic to labour,' Jones wrote with typical calculation in his autobiography, before adding with a dash of equally typical tribal sentimentality: 'He genuinely wanted to get on with working people.'
But their efforts to establish some sort of social contract came to nothing. Heath fell, Thatcher replaced him, and Jones, for all his doubts about Wilson, did the deal with the new Labour government instead. In part, he saw the social contract as an economic and electoral shield against the free-market ideas that were now taking hold of the Conservative Party. 'Once you took Heath out of the Tory crowd, they were very antagonistic towards the labour movement,' he told me. As the mid-seventies turned into the late seventies, and the political appeal and right-wing themes of Thatcher's policies became clearer, this defensive aspect of the social contract became increasingly important to the TGWU leader.
Yet the arrangement also had a more confident, expansive side. One of Jones's political heroes was Clement Attlee, whose government he revered for its radical and long-lasting redistribution of income and social opportunity. Since Attlee's defeat in the 1951 general election, Jones, like many in the unions and on the Labour left, had frustratedly endured almost a quarter of a century of less egalitarian administrations. 'We wanted a Labour government that would act for labour, for working people,' he told me; now, with the social contract, he saw an instrument to make such a Labour government a reality. The vulnerable state of the Wilson administration and of the British economy, Jones calculated, only enhanced his political leverage. 'We have a right to expect action,' he told the 1975 Labour Party conference, in a speech that ranged far beyond the usual concerns of unions by calling for more government action on unemployment and restrictions on imports, 'because we are playing our part in solving the nation's economic problems as never before.'
Between 1974 and 1978, Labour adopted a series of Jones's favoured policies. Despite the government's already overstretched finances, there were increases in the state pension and freezes on rents for council tenants. There were state subsidies to keep down food prices. There was the Health and Safety at Work Act, which Jones proudly describes in Union Man as 'the most comprehensive legislation ever drafted covering people at work'. There was the establishment of the Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service (ACAS), a body of which he had conceived, as an independent mediator for industrial disputes. More than any of these gains, there was a sense that Jack Jones was making much of the political weather, both in the government and in the labour movement. On 19 June 1974, the Guardian diary recorded:
At the Department of Employment yesterday, arriving five minutes early for a noon meeting with Michael Foot, a CBI [Confederation of British Industry] delegation … noticed a shiny TGWU limousine parked outside, being given a good polish by the chauffeur. Inside, with the Minister, was Jack Jones, whose important official deliberations kept the representatives of the tycoons cooling their heels for a good 20 minutes.
A fortnight earlier, Hugh Scanlon, head of the Amalgamated Union of Engineering Workers (AUEW), probably the second most influential union leader and usually a Jones ally, complained to Tony Benn that Jones had the ear of the prime minister. 'I think Harold Wilson, Michael Foot and Jack Jones run the country,' Benn replied. Frequently there were rumours that Jones was about to be asked to join the Cabinet. In Union Man he confirms one of them, with his usual blunt and impregnable self-assurance. At the 1974 TUC conference, he writes,
Sitting beside me on the platform Jim [Callaghan] whispered: 'You've performed miracles. You should be with us in the Government. You could go into the Lords and be with us in no time.' I whispered back: 'I don't want to go to the Lords and I don't want to be in the Government, but I'll help it all I can.'
Jones's idea of helping out was not always what the government had in mind. In the autumn of 1977, he hinted heavily in the press that ministers and trade union leaders should set a 'personal example' as socialists in a time of economic stress by not living in 'big houses'. The papers immediately printed pictures of the substantial country residences of Denis Healey, Wilson and Callaghan. In January 1975, Jones suggested that ministers should consult the unions in advance before making speeches addressed to their members. 'Far better that they [ministers] should talk to us', Jones said, an air of superiority unmistakable in his tone, 'before they make speeches which are often a little bit away from reality.' He used the same television interview to chastise Healey for calling on trade unionists to restrain their wage demands. 'We worked out a TUC policy [on pay],' Jones began. 'We are trying to apply it … I think that's the priority and not some Minister attempting to re-write something that is a matter for the trade union movement.' The fact that in this case 'some Minister' was the chancellor of the exchequer, the second most senior member of the Cabinet and the traditional steward of the economy, did not seem to trouble the TGWU leader in the slightest.
'A lot of Labour ministers were either afraid of the unions or felt respectful of them,' remembered Bill Rodgers, who was transport minister in the late seventies. 'They were older than us. Jack Jones – he fought in Spain. I was a young schoolboy then. They had little education, often. They had climbed up the ladder. Our ministers … were often apprehensive. Callaghan came in to see me once and said, "You're seeing Jack Jones this morning. You won't forget about the [Labour] conference, which is in ten days' time?" What Callaghan meant was: "Don't upset him unnecessarily. Because we need him onside."'
Three decades later, Jones leaned right forward across his desk, round face immobile and long fingers intertwined, and characterized his dealings with the governments of the seventies. 'It was a relationship of forces,' he said in his precise voice. 'If government wanted to talk to unions, it was a recognition that the unions must have been fairly strong. They wanted something from the unions … And one's conscious of that all the time.' He flapped a hand dismissively: 'I always suspect politicians. You don't become drunk because the prime minister sends for you.'
Did this relationship between the unions and the government feel sustainable at the time? Jones maintained his poker face. 'It was always going to be a bit abrasive, you understand that. It was never a question of, because I was a Labour Party member and a Labour Party supporter, conceding to Labour things I wouldn't concede to the Tories.' His first duty, after all, was to the swelling and restless TGWU: 'If the union membership was strong, you obviously had to get some results from that.' Jones sat back and out came his coffin-lid smile. 'That's what a union's about, isn't it?' he said with a knowing laugh. 'We want more.'
In the seventies, the nakedness with which Jones exercised his power was compensated for, at least to a degree, by the modesty of his manner and by his widely perceived personal integrity. Jones was not an upstart with a loudhailer like Arthur Scargill. Nor was he, unlike some union leaders, and despite his public appetite for TGWU limousines and goujons de sole, even faintly baronial in his private life. Although he led the biggest union, he did not draw the biggest union leader's salary. He and his wife Evelyn, a Labour activist who like him had risked her life fighting fascism in the thirties, took most of their holidays in a caravan in Devon. When they went to the Algarve in 1976, on a six-day package in the cheap period before Christmas, the Daily Mail considered the trip newsworthy enough for a two-column story with three photographs.
Back in England, the couple lived in a 'one and a half bedroom' flat on an estate in Denmark Hill in south London. He had bought the flat from the Greater London Council in the early seventies – the then Conservative-controlled GLC was a pioneer of council-house sell-offs – but otherwise his home life was plain and old-fashioned. He often walked into work at Transport House. While he was out, Evelyn, who was the local Labour ward secretary, would sometimes arrange for party events to take place in the flat. In the evenings, Jones recalled, 'I'd come home from a bloody meeting with a minister, and the living room would be full of people. It wasn't a big flat, so I'd have to sneak to bed.'
He was still living in the flat when I met him and, a few months later, I paid his estate a visit. I found a hillside of unusually handsome old blocks, with brass fittings on their doors and views of central London framed by rose bushes. There was almost no graffiti or litter; instead, there was a sense that some core of mid-twentieth-century municipal idealism had been preserved. I asked one of the estate's gardeners if he had heard of Jack Jones. 'Oh yes,' he said, carefully putting down his wheelbarrow. 'The union man.' The gardener pointed out a flat with net curtains, a neat row of mugs along one windowsill and a folded-up chair on its balcony.
'I believe trade union leaders should identify with the workers you represent,' Jones told me. 'You're much the same. You're part of them … I never moved out of a working-class background.' For almost the only time, his voice took on a slight hesitancy: 'I tried not to, anyway. I had the flat, and I had a council house in the Midlands … Other union leaders, they move away from working people – even Joe Gormley had a big house – so their outlook becomes quite different. They begin to have friends amongst the middle class. I think you should continue to be … with your own class.'
During the seventies, Jones's power and dedicated proletarianism discomfited some. He campaigned for the abolition of the House of Lords. He advocated higher taxes for 'the landed gentry, who don't contribute anything to society'. Some of his opponents in the press took to calling him the Emperor Jones, after the doomed self-made autocrat in the play of the same name by Eugene O'Neill. Other critics found him bafflingly colourless: in 1976, the Spectator described him as 'that earnest, bespectacled figure with the curious speech impediment'. In 1977, the Social Democratic Alliance, a new pressure group on the right of the Labour Party – which would ultimately play a part in the forming of the SDP – produced a dossier alleging that Jones was 'a dedicated opponent of Western Parliamentary Democracy'. Between 1966 and 1977, MI5 compiled forty volumes of material on Jones and the AUEW leader Hugh Scanlon, and repeatedly sought to block their appointment to positions on government bodies.
Yet, just as often, Jones received extraordinary praise from parts of the press and political establishment usually critical of trade unions. 'Jones … with the social contract, has emerged as a national statesman,' declared the Financial Times in 1975, 'devoted to doing what he believes to be best for Britain's workers and their families … confounding his critics who had dismissed him as a negative man of the Left.' In 1974, the head of industrial relations at the textiles conglomerate Courtaulds wrote to the Guardian: 'Everyone with first-hand experience of industrial relations will agree with much that Mr Jack Jones says …' That March, Paul Dacre, the future editor of the Daily Mail and scourge of the British Left, interviewed the TGWU man for the Daily Express: 'James Larkin Jones … probably the last of the cloth-cap union leaders, possessor of a blunt, rough-edged Scouse charisma, is very far from being a monster.' In December 1977, a Sun editorial described Jones as 'one of the nicest men anyone could hope to meet'.
In 1975, and again in 1977, Gallup polls found that a comfortable majority of the public considered him more powerful than the prime minister. During the 1974 general elections, graffiti appeared: 'Vote Jack Jones, cut out the middle man.' In 2004, I asked him how he had felt during the seventies about the idea that he was running the country. He looked at me unblinkingly. 'It was utter nonsense, of course. The press are always inclined to simplify. I was reflecting the point of view of the members …'
Jones was due to retire in March 1978. During his final months as TGWU leader, his public statements grew increasingly philosophical. In December 1977, he gave the Richard Dimbleby lecture on BBC1, a rare honour for a trade unionist, and proposed a new model of British industrial relations centred on the election of 'ordinary shopfloor and office workers' to company boards. 'We must develop the idea of the Talk-In rather than the Walk-Out,' Jones concluded, as if a scaled-down version of the social contract could be introduced in every business in the land. In February 1978, he talked more ambitiously still to the New York Times. 'There's no use', he told America's establishment paper, in unions 'going after the wage full stop the work of such bodies for their members 'doesn't end at the plant gates'. Instead, unions should continue to press as well for a shorter working week, for longer holidays, for 'a civilized life' for 'the working man … with a home, time for the wife and kids, leisure, fun'.
Jones did not mention it, but there was a place in Britain where this enlightened vision of working-class ease and fulfilment was already a reality. When Bevin had been head of the TGWU, he had conceived of setting up a holiday centre for his members somewhere on the south coast of England. The scheme was not pursued: the Depression and the Second World War meant the union had other priorities. Yet the idea endured. When Jones became General Secretary, he broadened the project to encompass 'a combined centre for convalescence, holidays, and union education' and began looking for a location. 'Almost by accident, I came across a vacant site on the seafront at Eastbourne,' he writes in Union Man. 'A group of speculators had "caught a cold" over their plans for a new hotel … The land was to be sold. A "For Sale" sign caught my eye and we were able to buy the site at a reasonable price.' In 1974, he laid the foundation stone, and in 1976 the TGWU Centre opened, a miniature workers' utopia built on the site of a capitalist failure in a traditionally Tory resort town, in the middle of the traditionally Tory-dominated south of England. As a symbol, and as evidence of the unions' advance in the seventies, it was hard to better.
In February 2005, the centre was still open. I arrived in Eastbourne on the coldest morning of the winter, with pensioners hurrying between shops and snow in the forecast. The seafront was deserted: palms absurd in the stinging wind, grey waves humping shingle onto the beach, an endless succession of white stucco hotels. Gradually as I walked, a taller, more modern, more angular structure revealed itself in the distance, a great dark honeycomb of smoked glass. When I reached its main entrance, there was a salt-stained sign: 'T&G Centre'. Above the sign rose ten storeys of balconied rooms, piled up in the heavy, hard-edged architectural style I had seen in seventies oil-company headquarters in Aberdeen, as if the decade called for fortresses after the breezy glass boxes of the fifties and sixties. Below the sign, at doormat level, was the foundation stone Jones had laid, still crisp, dedicating the complex 'to the working people of all lands'. Up on a third-floor balcony a lone guest, white hair thrashing in the wind, was taking a picture of the sea. Otherwise, the building's brown glass skin hid its inner life almost completely. The first snowflakes began to fall, and I stepped inside.
The lobby was warm and dim. There were TGWU pens and polo shirts for sale. A muzak version of 'Yesterday' was playing, and there was the faint chink of coffee cups. A few men with lived-in faces sat contentedly in deep armchairs. Everything looked faintly institutional but spotless. Then the manager appeared, grey-suited, young-looking but twenty-two years in the job, and showed me into his office.
'This was Jack Jones's brainchild,' he began, sitting down at a pristine modular seventies table and offering me tea or coffee, his manner somewhere between a vicar and an estate agent. 'It was his baby … One hundred and thirty bedrooms. Designed by the union's architects. No outside paintwork for ease of maintenance. Built by British workers with British materials. The slates are Welsh, the tiles are from Stoke-on-Trent. It was built to a very high standard for the time. The carpets lasted for twenty-five years. Every room was en suite – in the seventies, it was unheard of. Fitted radios in the headboards. We had a projector in our conference room …' He beamed. 'Unheard of!'
Room rates were low – between £6 and £6.50 a night for full board in the beginning, depending on the season – and subsidized by the union. Many guests did not have to pay at all. Some were convalescing: any TGWU member off sick from work for more than two weeks was entitled to a free fortnight at Eastbourne for them and a partner, with food and travel also paid by the union. Other guests came to the centre for TGWU conferences and seminars. 'Shop stewards will be able to benefit from educational services,' as Jones put it in a speech at the opening ceremony in September 1976 which cleverly blurred the political, the personal and the pleasurable, 'while their families benefit from a holiday.' Showing his unusually clear-sighted understanding, for a union leader, of the relationship between unions and everyday life in the seventies, he went on: 'Many wives who have criticized their husbands for spending too much time in trade union activity will see the Union in a new light when they enjoy a holiday here – and vice versa … because these days it is often the women who are the strongest advocates of trade union rights. The shop steward wife will be able to explain "all about it" to her husband and children very convincingly in these surroundings.'
Jones envisaged TGWU activists being schooled at Eastbourne in negotiating techniques, in how companies worked, and in the whole widening social, economic and political role he envisaged for unions. He envisaged foreign trade unionists coming to stay to 'exchange ideas' and aid 'international understanding'. At times, as the noon sun shone on the crowd of middle-aged TGWU officials gathered for the opening ceremony, his rhetoric turned panoramic and idealistic. 'This building', he said, 'epitomises our hopes and our dreams … the forward march of the people towards a richer and fuller life … the increasing demands for shorter working hours and earlier retirement … the maximum participation of all our members not only in union policy … but also in decisions which determine their standard of living and conditions of employment.' He concluded: 'This centre charts a new path for trade unionism. It is an encouragement to abandon pessimism and gloom.'
The actual life of the complex in the seventies was sometimes more prosaic. 'Eastbourne is a very Conservative town, a very Conservative town,' the manager told me in his office. 'The building was nicknamed the Kremlin. It was very much, "The Reds are here on the seafront." You'd just gone through the early seventies …' – he scratched his knee – 'all the disruption from the unions. I don't think we were that welcome. We used to have hordes of people trying to look in through the glass. We had one local sea captain – sadly passed on – who liked to drink and see how far he could get into the building without being caught.' Regardless, the guests played snooker and sat on the sun roof. They took notes in seminars and drank in the bars. They ran into old colleagues. They spotted visiting dignitaries: often Jones, sometimes Scargill. They relished the colour TV in their rooms and the one-to-four ratio of staff to guests. 'The restaurant was designed as self-service, but that arrangement only lasted a matter of weeks,' the manager said. 'People in the seventies didn't want to stand up and queue.'
He took me on a tour. We walked up staircases with rich wooden bannisters and through mahogany doors. We looked at en suites still with their original raspberry and avocado decor. We saw the kitchens – 'built above ground, to be better for the staff' – with their cauldrons of cabbage and chips. We talked about the in-house carpenters, engineers and cleaners, and the centre's model workforce: still unionized, largely self-sufficient, loyal. We passed delegates attending a TGWU conference – 'Winning in the Global Workplace' – with their coats thrown over the chairs in one of the bars and the union religion still in their eyes. We saw a man peering in from the street through the smoked glass. Then we stopped for a few minutes in a huge corner bedroom. 'Two walls of glass!' said the manager. Below us, a white sun caught the pier and the curve of the beach, but a cold draught crept across the carpet. 'We lose a lot of heat in winter,' he conceded, 'but the complaint we have about these rooms is that people can't see the TV from the bed. It's too far.'
The room was unoccupied. It was February, but filling the centre was getting harder all year round. 'When I started there were 2,500,000 members in the T&G,' the manager said. How many did the union have now? He dropped his voice: 'About 800,000. Last week, I was given the go-ahead to look further afield for guests – people from other unions, possibly non-union members … Since the mid-nineties we have looked at our staffing levels.' He sighed. 'Like every industry. We have looked at it quite radically. We now have thirty-two full-time members of staff.' At the busiest times in the seventies there were sixty.
He left me in the restaurant. Lunch was over and the room was empty; the muzak had switched to 'Bridge Over Troubled Water'. Yet the room still had a certain grandeur. Great bulb-lit glass globes hung in clusters from the high ceiling on black cords, as if in some modernist concert hall. A long mezzanine level faced out to sea. Along its curving parapet there was a mural from the seventies, all bold reds and blues and greens, and a plaque ascribing it to something called the Art Workers Cooperative. Three artists' names were listed – Simon Barber, Christopher Robinson and Michael Jones, one of Jack Jones's sons. Then the plaque explained that the mural told the story of trade unionism in Britain.
It started with men ploughing fields. Then the fields became a gloomy forest of mill chimneys, and the men became bent-backed factory workers and miners. A cartoon capitalist in a top hat squatted on a Monopoly board. Then there were policemen in earlytwentieth-century uniforms beating union demonstrators with truncheons; thunderous scenes from the Spanish Civil War and the Second World War; and then a new sunlit post-war landscape, with jets streaking overhead and smokeless modern factories. On an idealized production line a clear-eyed worker looked at his watch, as if timing some high-tech process or thinking of his next tea break. Then there was the silhouette of the TGWU Centre in Eastbourne, with a saxophonist playing to guests and the English Channel glittering. Finally, there was a man in a flat cap with his shirt off, lying against a tree, eyes half-closed. Another man ran across a nearby beach with two women in bikinis. More off-duty trade unionists lounged on a yacht in the blue distance.
The whole painting was slightly absurd. Its lack of subtlety, its crude historical transitions, its mixture of travel-brochure and socialist-realist imagery – it verged on the kitsch. Yet there was something moving about its idealism and mistaken confidence. In September 1976, as Jack Jones was opening the TGWU Centre in the sunshine, hopes for the advance of the unionized working class in Britain were still very much alive.
13
Marxism at Lunchtime
Bolder left-wing visions also survived deep into the British seventies. In the autumn of 2008, as I was making some of the last alterations to this book, a slim envelope arrived in the post from my cousin Simon. I vaguely knew he had been politically active in the seventies, but somehow I had always been too busy to talk to him. Inside the envelope was a tiny yellowed, creased booklet. 'A bit late but might be interesting!' said a Post-it note attached to the cover. I carefully peeled off the note, and on the front of the booklet were four words in heavy black and red capitals: 'The Little Red Struggler'. And then, in smaller type: 'A handbook for student militants 30p'.
The handbook did not have a publication date, but inside it no years were cited after 1975. There was also an inky photo of some protesters with beards and thick sideburns in the style of serious young men in the mid-seventies, and a caricature of Richard Nixon turning into Gerald Ford. The handbook had been printed in Manchester, at somewhere called the Progress Bookshop, and its publisher was listed as the National Student Committee of the Communist Party.
For sixty busy pages a whole dead political world sprang to life. There were London contact details for Marxists in Medicine, the Women's Liberation Workshop, the Angola Solidarity Committee and the British Campaign for Peace in Vietnam. There was a surprisingly objective guide to 'political groupings in the student movement', from the Workers Revolutionary Party to the International Marxist Group to the Communist Party itself. There was a sober and detailed guide to campus occupations:
DO …
Decide whether the action is to be demonstrative or disruptive … Have specific demands which are negotiable, as well as raising issues which question the role of education in society …Look forward to the initial organisation inside [the occupation], eg food, entertainments, sleeping arrangements, study facilities …
DON'T …
Rely on a small elitist/vanguard invasion … Allow [campus] staff, particularly security staff, inside the occupation … Smoke dope; get drunk; damage the place; leave a mess when it's all over.
Most strikingly of all, the booklet gave a chronology of notable political interventions by British students since the mid-sixties:
1968: Feb. Leicester. 200 students in sit-in … 1970: May. Keele. Situationists, helped by Edgar Broughton Band and spraycans 'liberate' Keele … 1972: Oct. Queen visits Stirling … Students union concerned over cost of visit … less than sober demonstration takes place. Press uproar … 1974: Mar. Essex. Police break student picket … 1975: Mar. Lancaster … students occupy administration block … May. Warwick students sit-in over rents issue …
*
By the mid-seventies, in Britain, as in many other countries, campus radicalism of a loosely Marxist nature was no longer the shock to the system it had been in the sixties. It was becoming something equally interesting: a new political orthodoxy, with its own confident patterns of thought and public rituals. Some of this confidence came from the apparent advance of the Left and retreat of the Right in the wider world. In 1974, fascist dictatorships in Greece and Portugal had been overthrown by left-inclined rebels. In 1975, the Americans had withdrawn, humiliated, from Vietnam. Africa was full of left-wing liberation movements. The Soviet bloc and China, whether you approved of their version of communism or not, seemed increasingly strong as Western capitalism struggled with the oil crisis and economic downturns. In Britain, the media, more interested in foreign affairs then than it is now, conscientiously brought news of it all.
Intellectually, too, the British campus left had a momentum in the mid-seventies. The Tory right and the free-market think tanks may have been plotting their counter-revolution, but their publications were still far less prominent on university bookshelves than those of their ideological opponents. Since its establishment in London in 1970, New Left Books (now Verso) had been successfully importing the ideas of left-wing thinkers from continental Europe, such as Walter Benjamin and Louis Althusser. More mainstream British publishers moved into the same market. In 1975, Jonathan Cape issued Leninism Under Lenin, a long didactic book by a Belgian Marxist historian, Marcel Liebman, which described the leader of the Russian Revolution over half a century earlier as 'one of the men who did the most to shape the world of today'. In 1977, Penguin included in its Modern Masters series, alongside studies of Einstein and Gandhi, a stylishly designed layman's guide to the thoughts of Antonio Gramsci, the Italian Marxist of the twenties and thirties.
The increasing 'hegemony', to use Gramsci's then fashionable term for cultural dominance, of left-wing notions at British universities in the seventies was famously satirized by the liberal academic and novelist Malcolm Bradbury in The History Man, the exquisitely black campus comedy he published in 1975. Bradbury's villain and main protagonist was Howard Kirk, a bullying, philandering Marxist sociology lecturer. Kirk taught at a fictional college which closely resembled the most politically combustible British campus during the seventies, the concrete-and-grass crucible of the University of Essex. In an interview decades later, Bradbury said he had always thought of Kirk as the kind of Marxist who was more 'opportunist' than ideological: 'He reads political trends, perceives the political flow and goes with it.' Kirk was the 'history man' of the book's title – academic shorthand for a believer in inevitability. The novel was set in 1972, but it did not date quickly. For the rest of the decade, for more British students and academics, almost certainly, than at any time before or since, the one inevitability in political life was the victory of world socialism.
My cousin Simon arrived at Middlesex Polytechnic in 1974. He was nineteen and already had a head full of politics. His parents were both mildly left-wing and had sent him to a private but radical Quaker school, where underground papers like Oz had been passed around. He studied politics for A-level and cut out general-election results from the Guardian. He sent off for all the parties' literature, and chose Labour.
But at Middlesex he found politics being conducted on a different level. The polytechnic was only a year old, and had been formed out of a scattering of facilities across north London, including Hornsey College of Art, which in 1968 had been the site of the biggest British student rebellion of that revolutionary year. An occupation of the college had lasted two months, and the students had temporarily set up their own university there with the aid of a few sympathetic staff. At Middlesex in the seventies, the Hornsey sit-in lived on as a memory and a mythologized happening, and as a model for further actions.
'The campus I was taught at was a pretty tatty old technical college with a few Portakabins stuck on the back,' Simon, in his early fifties now but still skinny like a student, told me as he cooked me supper at his semi-detached house outside Watford. 'The whole diaspora of left-wing groups there was a bit mind-boggling to me compared to where I'd come from. There was the International Marxist Group, the International Socialists, Militant. The Communist Party were always regarded as fairly mainstream. I aligned myself' – he was still fluent in the jargon – 'with a group called the Broad Left, which dominated the National Union of Students.' The Broad Left was an alliance of communists, left-wing Labour supporters and more free-floating socialists which had been established in 1973. Like the other radical student groups, its policies ranged from the relatively parochial – a big increase in the student grant – to the revolutionary and universal – the 'nationalisation of all building land'. 'I wouldn't have called myself a Marxist when I arrived at the poly,' said Simon, 'but, theoretically, I got very Marxist.'
At Middlesex he grew his hair halfway to his waist, had a beard 'on and off', and cultivated a Che Guevara moustache. Officially he studied 'humanities', an adventurous new type of degree which let students do modules in different subjects. He chose history, law and English literature. Yet really he studied Marxism. 'The teaching staff all called themselves Marxists. They were young academics, probably radicalized in '68. In history, we learned to point at the majority of historians as apologists for capitalism. Most of the books on our reading list were written by Marxists.' He read Das Kapital. He read Parliamentary Socialism by Ralph Miliband, father of David and Ed Miliband, yet a ferocious critic of Labour's compromises with capitalism when in office. He read The World Turned Upside Down by Christopher Hill, an influential Marxist reinterpretation of the seventeenth-century English revolution which saw immense potential in its small radical sects, such as the Levellers and the Diggers. He read books about the Spanish Civil War; about 'colonialism and imperialism'. And he saw what happened to students at Middlesex who questioned such categories: 'You could be howled down for disagreeing with Marxism in a seminar. Even in law. That was funny: students doing law modules from these quite staid backgrounds, coming up against these Marxist law lecturers who were trying to explain that the law was a blunt instrument of capitalism.' Simon smiled to himself, and it was hard to tell whether the memory left him delighted or appalled, or both. I mentioned Malcolm Bradbury's book, and he nodded. 'There were lots of "history men" lecturers at Middlesex.'
Away from seminars and lectures, the political education continued. 'You couldn't get away from it. There would be political speeches being made in the refectory as you were having your lunch. Someone would get up. There would be a crude PA. People would listen. People would get up and argue. I don't ever remember a Conservative student making a speech.' Did the dominance of the Left at Middlesex feel at all unusual? 'I assumed that was just the way it was at colleges everywhere.'
Frequently, the political satisfactions of public rhetoric and student elections would not be enough and the undergraduates would go on strike. The spark was usually fees for foreign students: with the government's finances under pressure, these were increasing rapidly, and Middlesex had a lot of overseas pupils. But the strikes quickly took on a more all-encompassing quality. Pickets would be established simultaneously at the gates of all the Middlesex campuses. 'I wasn't the most confident or outgoing of people, but I went on the picket lines,' Simon remembered, 'and they were 100 per cent effective. Most students didn't even try to cross.' College buildings would regularly be occupied for days at a time. 'We had a whole alternative counter-curriculum during the occupations. Some lecturers joined in with us and gave lectures they said they weren't usually allowed to give: about the role of art in the revolution, about the last stages of capitalist decline.' During one sit-in, Simon and the other students watched Winstanley, a 1975 British film about the leader of the Diggers, Gerrard Winstanley, who had briefly put into practice an early version of communism by leading land occupations and setting up communes in England during the 1650s. Sid Rawle, of the free-festival movement, the Diggers' closest seventies equivalents, had a substantial part in the film. All the strands of British left-wing utopianism seemed to be coming together.
'I don't think I ever slept overnight in the college buildings,' said Simon, 'yet I remember occupying the college offices during the day. It was exciting … There were often police at the college, at the entrances …' He stopped. 'It would sometimes get boring after a while. There were no pitched battles.'
But in some ways the very normality of the strikes and occupations and their left-wing participants seemed the most significant thing about them – the sign, it seemed, that a new political world was coming into being. Simon was even able to keep up with his studies. The flexibility of the modular degrees at Middlesex, with their emphasis on coursework and with few compulsory events to attend, meant they could tolerate a great deal of campus disruption. In 1977, he took and passed his finals: exams were never boycotted. Yet before he left the poly there was time for one more radical gesture. 'I never collected my degree,' he remembered. 'There was no ceremony because the students were threatening to disrupt it. The year after, the poly invited me back again to collect my degree. But I boycotted the ceremony.'
By then, the summer of 1978, he had moved seamlessly into another part of the counter-culture: a condemned flat in Notting Hill. It was in Colville Houses, the street where the Gay Liberation Front had had their commune in the early seventies, and the area seemed little changed, still full of squats, swirly-painted vehicles and hippy food stores. Simon's flatmate was involved in the Chile Committee for Human Rights, and touring anti-Pinochet musicians from Chile slept on their floor. Simon was working as a community volunteer in nearby Kensal, 'championing the rights of the oppressed people of west London', he recalled with a self-mocking smile.
How did his revolutionary certainty in the seventies look to him now? There was a long pause. We both looked at our empty plates. Finally, he blew out his cheeks. 'It looks ludicrous.' Simon was a senior social worker now. He had a daughter of his own at university, and she wasn't taking part in any sit-ins. He still had his moustache, but it was trimmed and neat, and his beard and straggly hair were long gone. He was still politically active, but for a more modest goal: arranging practical aid for the Palestinians.
Yet then Simon went on: 'I was thirteen in '68. I remember thinking, "There is an irreversible momentum to this." The revolution was around the corner. It was only a matter of time. That feeling was still around in the mid-seventies. The feeling was that things had quietened down a bit, but the general trend was still towards the overthrow of global capitalism. The feeling was, "We're still going to win." At Middlesex, I used to think about my course, "If this is what's being taught, there's no way back. These Marxist lecturers are the opinion-formers." Even the existence of publications like The Little Red Struggler, which I read avidly, created the impression that the movement was building, that it's not going to go away. It just didn't make sense that you could go back to' – and he said the next words with a hint of the old campus venom – 'a militarist and capitalist system. It didn't seem to have anything in its favour, morally, and I didn't understand anything about economics. I thought that '68 had blown the lid off a Pandora's box for equality and liberty and human potential …' He cut short his speech. 'What I didn't know in the seventies was that there were plenty of people who were keen to get the lid back down again.'
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