Ladies and gentlemen, you see before you a man, I will not say more sinned against than sinning; but a man more analysed than analysing. One book of mine has been subjected to Freudian analysis, neo-Freudian analysis, Jungian analysis, Roman Catholic approval, a kind of implicit imprimatur—protestant apprisal, nonconformist surmise, Scientific Humanist misinterpretation, to say nothing of the dialectic, both Marxist and Hegelian. An anonymous gentleman from the state of Texas accused me of being un-American, an accusation I must bear with what fortitude I may. I thought, after that, that the list was complete. But one dark night, after a lecture in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, a curious figure loomed up—I never saw his face—and told me I wrote Science Fiction. Clearly there was life in the list yet. Then, a few days ago, I received your invitation to this meeting. I welcomed it, as my wife and I welcome any excuse to visit your country whether it be agricultural France, or industrial or academic or all three at once. But before I had read very far in the literature that accompanied the invitation two new feelings came over me. In the first place, I saw that the addresses to be given by the other speakers were of awesome, if a little narrow, profundity. Truth lives at the bottom of a well, but these were oil wells, miles deep and only a foot across. What was there about me that would be a qualification for speaking in such company?
However, a partial answer to that question emerged late in the literature. I felt like the gentleman who discovered he had been speaking prose all his life. I was, I discovered, an 'antiutopian'. Indeed, as I read on, for an awful moment or two, I even thought myself to be diagnosed as a 'dystopist', and setting aside the questionable etymology of the word, it seemed to describe some terrible disease or perhaps a vice so disgusting its name was not to be found in the dictionary.
Antiutopian seemed clear enough. But what was I to say about it among scholars boring so deep for some oil or other? Clearly it was useless for me to try to as we say 'get the subject up'. You have got it up, all of you. All I could do, then, was to glance back over a lifetime of desultory reading, of casual enjoyment rather than dedicated effort and see what antiutopian and Utopian might mean to me. That backward landscape was blank first. You have limited yourself to the last hundred years but I freed myself with a bound and looked wherever I chose. Still, the backward landscape of the mind was blank and dark; but then, of course, Plato began to glimmer. Thomas More came into view. As my eyes accepted this new constraint of choice the whole landscape came into a kind of halflight. Suddenly there were names in neon lighting—Butler, Swift, Voltaire, Defoe, Shaw, Wells, Huxley, Orwell. The field was absurdly wide. The only way in which I could enter it was to take with me the reason why you must have asked me, that book, Lord of the Flies, which by now I have gone near to surrounding with commentary the way Dante surrounded the Vita Nuova.
When I realized that I felt mutinous and much inclined to talk about something else even at the risk of boring you and behaving like a man who is invited to dinner because his wife is so beautiful but who insists on telling his funny stories whether anyone wants to hear them or not. So I abandoned immediate consideration of my own books—I have written more than one, after all—and looked at Utopias not as they are explained and ticked off in some literary continuum but as human aspiration to be set in and with what Wordsworth called the still, sad music of humanity. We must remember first of all that when a Utopia glitters all gold in the memory it does so against a background of social darkness, of misery, want, deprivation at every level. Yet there is a universal seed or root natural to the soil of the human mind from which all endeavour, all working towards a happier order of things rises and sometimes flowers. So when I gave that first glance back at my own memory it was poetry, not prose that seemed to lie behind the works we have named and others we shall name later. It was Pindar's Hesperides where, to use Tennyson's superb translation,
Where falls not hail, or rain, or any snow,
Nor ever wind blows loudly; but it lies
Deep-meadowed, happy, fair with orchard-lawns
And bowery hollows crowned with summer sea—
It was Alcman. Two hundred years before Plato abandoned poetry and talked philosophically of the perfected society, Alcman gave the longing for human happiness a lyrical expression. You will find the lines somewhere in the anthology; and true to my determination not to read anything, study anything, look up anything specially for this lecture, I can only give you a paraphrase of them. He, you will remember, would like to be transformed into the haliporphuros ornis, the sea-blue bird of the spring. But he was old, was he not, like our civilization, and crying out that his limbs, like our institutions, were weak and no longer able to support him.
But this look far back brings up too much. We might stay with Hesiod and a golden age or even with Ovid. I broke away, flipped three thousand years, near enough to The First American Gentleman. There, the father when asked by his child what happened to people after they died, replied that they became brightly plumaged birds, flitting and singing and feeding and making love for ever among the branches of endless flowering trees. From that, I myself flitted to Swift's Laputa and Defoe's Libertalia, then by way of Voltaire's Eldorado to Shelley. I was behaving like a ball on a pin table, bouncing from one contact to another and, to tell the truth, not scoring very much. I began to appreciate the common sense of restricting us to the last hundred years and determined to return myself to it.
Might we agree that both Utopias and antiutopias must form under the pressure of ruling ideas? Those ideas enforce a simplicity of outlook so that in Utopias at least, character gives place to the idea of humanity. We have castes, or classes rather than people. This enforces a simplicity of outlook that might be called simplistic. The anonymous and faceless gentleman who approached me in the darkness of a Brisbane Street with his talk of Science Fiction may or may not have been aware of the Utopian element in that genre. Science Fiction, SF, is related to the mainstream of writing much as ghost stories were related to it in the past. Possibly tales of the supernatural were a by-product of a waning religious faith and possibly SF is a by-product of our increasing loss of faith in science. The writer's view of character in SF is as two-dimensional as in a utopia. Though SF generally has a utopian element in it because it tends to deal with the human future, the machinery of life, of the hypostatized world is the important thing. At the lowest level SF is about as Utopian as a glossy magazine. The hero and heroine ride off into the sunset of a perfected society in an old familiar fashion not much altered by the fact that the noble steed is an anti-gravity machine and the sun a green one. The trouble with the writing of SF is its complete freedom of manoeuvre. Once you accept the premise of knowledge and power increasing world without end you are carving in butter rather than stone. There are hundreds of dully competent SF writers who can just keep your attention as cards just keep it when you are playing patience. It does not matter much whether you say a city is on the moon or Alpha Centauri when the inhabitants are paper cutouts and the story recognizably one of cops and robbers. Perhaps SF is also running out of steam, the way ghost stories seem to have done. It is notable that empires are back in. Read Gibbon's Decline and Fall and you can find the history of all the galactic empires right there in every detail. I strongly suspect one or two hack writers, to say nothing of script writers, of being secret addicts of Gibbon. If not, I offer them the idea for free.
There are, of course, many better things than that in SF. Ray Bradbury's story the Fire Balloons is utopian in its way. Mars is a sort of Hesperides where you could say the ethereal inhabitants toil not neither do they spin. But—and here we come to a point I wish to elaborate later—in most science fiction the idea of evolution is deeply embedded because SF is post-Darwinian. Writers, after all, are children of their age. Arthur C. Clark illustrates this very well. In an early book of his, Childhood's End, he makes us all evolve into a higher form of life. The whole of the human race coalesces as amoebas do. The super-creature strips the world of life, leaving it dead as the moon and takes off to do whatever it may do in the pastures of deep space. Indeed, SF may have taken over a bit of the religion that tales of the supernatural left lying about, for in the book 2001 Clark shows us a man moving towards a higher state and becoming something very like an archangel. If you find that hard to believe of something that falls so demonstrably in the realm of SF please note that Clark himself says the work is theological. In fact, when discussing the film of his book he has a quiet snigger at what the producers would have thought if they had known they were investing tens of millions of dollars in a theological subject. But it is worth noting that this child of his century has succeeded in writing about God and man without any discussion at all of good and evil. After all, two-dimensional people would find it difficult to engage in more than two-dimensional sin.
My complementary and contrasting example is C. S. Lewis, a fully-fledged apologist for and advocate of the Church of England. He was a man of vast erudition, both literary and theological. His utopia is peopled with God's unfallen creatures. They are not prelapsarian but unfallen and we are to witness in one book their rescue from the fall. Where Clark's book tells us nothing of how his evolved creatures are to disport themselves in the future, Lewis's creatures have been disporting themselves ever since they were created and we see them in their paradise. It is Mars and Venus—both now, owing to space probes and photography, useless as possible paradises, like those lost civilizations in Africa. The picture Lewis paints has much appeal. God has created on Mars three classes, benign intellectuals, jolly hunters and energetic artisans. No class is top class. They do not interbreed, but find much enjoyment in each other's company and difference. Co-operation is complete. They do not study theology for that, after all, is a postlapsarian requirement. On Mars, God Himself is present and meets his people in a holy place, while His angels hover as it were always on the fringe of visibility. Lewis himself had a deep, and one might think morbid, fear of dead bodies; and certainly there are few people unless they are doctors and trained to it who can claim complete indifference to those sad and sometimes repulsive relics. It was Charles Lamb, I believe, who lamented that our bodies cannot disappear like the Cock Lane Ghost 'with a sweet smell and melodious twanging'. On Lewis's Mars the dead are made to disappear in just such a seemly fashion. Throughout Lewis's fantasies we may detect not so much his opinions but his very nature, his moral anguish and private disgusts. One cannot ask too much of a book which does not claim to be more than a popular romance. But his utopian bent is undeniable however; and he does seem to me to invite our questioning by the pervasive devotion and moralizing of his books. Unlike Clark's books, Lewis's are always set against a background of good and evil as warring principals. For all his vast learning, his faith, his polemical theology, I believe the impulse behind his writing takes us back not to More or Plato, not even to the New Testament, but further back, where we began with Pindar and even more, with Alcman. Alcman was growing old, his limbs were no longer able to sustain him—would I were a halcyon flying over the flowers of foam, a sea-blue bird of the spring! Lewis was growing old too. The world had a narrower and narrower place left for his orthodoxy and dark war was looming. He might well feel—would I were an unfallen Sorn or Hrossa or Fiffltriggi and not this poor man whose end is so disgusting and so dark! Yet observe how Lewis is also a child of his post-Darwinian century. In Perelandra, the book renamed for the popular market Voyage to Venus, the whole thing ends with a paean, a vast hymn which sketches out the future evolution of the species saved from sin, even though the evolution will take place in a Christian heaven or seventh heaven. The ruling idea of the century, simplistic as it may be, seems here to stay.
Now you may wonder how all this links up with the idea of utopias in the last hundred years. The answer is that utopias do not have any evolution, merely an endless, changeless future. They do not have any past, either. They were always there it seems. They did not evolve except in one or two rare examples. They were come across. Thomas More simply came across his Utopia as Candide came across his Eldorado. Plato's Atlantis is hearsay. In general when a writer says how it all came about he is not writing about Utopia, but somewhere else. I can only think of one—let us call it Utopia—which has a past. Shaw in his huge trilogy Back to Methusaleh gets a Bergsonian life-force combined with Lamarckian evolution to mould men until by action and interaction they can mould themselves. Shaw's thesis is that we shall only become wise when we have two hundred years or more to learn in. I must say that he lived long enough to cast doubts on his own thesis by the evidence from his own longevity. In his trilogy men, or, one supposes, women have become oviparous, immortal though not indestructible, plastic and mathematical. The final section of the trilogy is called As Far As Thought Can Reach; and has left at least one reader thinking that if that is as far as thought can go, the sooner it comes back again the better. The Marxist is quite right to insist on the how of Utopia even if he is hazy about the what and when. Utopians, with their pretty pictures, their indifference to the fact of human nature and their assumption that even in a book it is possible to ignore the Heraclitean flux of things, are a feckless if good-humoured lot.
However, utopias are presented for our inspection as a critique of the human state. If they are to be treated as anything but trivial exercises of the imagination I suggest there is a simple test we can apply. Let us set evolution aside for a moment, even ignore Humanity with a capital aitch, abandon all thought of bosses and workers and intellectuals and political parties which are the parody infrastructure of our real lives. We must forget the whole paraphernalia of social description, demonstration, expostulation, approbation, condemnation. We have to say to ourselves, 'How would I myself live in this proposed society? How long would it be before I went stark staring mad?' Unfair as this may seem when the test piece is not more than an unpretentious romance it does, and in a very startling way, reveal the defects in an ideal construction. But as a personal reminiscence I remember reading Men Like Gods by H. G. Wells when I was boy and I remember feeling with a positive surge of joy that I myself could walk straight into such a society and live there. I do remember asking myself in my innocence—or ignorance—why the world was not like that and was too young to know the answer. We should be poorer genetic material if our boys and girls did not sometimes feel like that, no matter what happens to them later on. For the cruel fact is that had that boy walked into the perfected society, to him would have come out of his blood the hates and loves—no, on a less epic scale, the antipathies and greeds, the jealousies and ambitions, the misdirected energies and deadening sloths; and not just his but those of other people all working with, through and against each other. This is why your true Utopia is a timeless, changeless thing. Did it move off the printed page into living reality there is one thing certain we can say about it. The instant it moved it would change. I do not say it would evolve, since the implications of that word in its technical sense are too restricting, but it would change, warp, harden, fragment. These things and good things along with them would operate like viruses in the blood.
Here is an extended metaphor for the nature of life as I suppose it to be. If someone else, or many other people, have used it I can only apologize to you for boring you; but at the end of a conference in which the papers, erudite and fascinating as they unquestionably have been to the few people qualified to engage their attention to a particular one, you must nevertheless have had some practice as I have in projecting an image of profound engagement while your thoughts were somewhere else. I offer my extended metaphor, then, as a period of rest to those present who have heard it all before.
Consider a man riding a bicycle. Whoever he is, we can say three things about him. We know he got on the bicycle and started to move. We know that at some point he will stop and get off. Most important of all, we know that if at any point between the beginning and end of his journey he stops moving and does not get off the bicycle he will fall off it. That is a metaphor for the journey through life of any living thing, and I think of any society of living things. To confuse the issue I might add in parenthesis that I believe in another spiritual dimension which crosses that journey at right-angles, so to speak; but it is not relevant here and we must forget it. What a delicate, ineffably complex and intuitive ability this riding of a bike is! Definitions and theories and systems are inadequate to its description. They do nothing but get in the way of the act. Yet a small child can perform this wonder and think little enough of it after his first triumph.
Now how does the utopian fit into the metaphor? He is like a man who takes a snapshot of the action. He will tell us that to ride the bicycle for ever the riders must have the pedals just so, with the machine leaning, perhaps twenty degrees one way or the other. But we know well enough that the bicycle that stops as in the snapshot, and no longer relies on the balance between change and stability, will fall in the road; and a society of the same sort would fall clean off the world and vanish with the dinosaurs. We are not to be taken in by the snapshot, pretty as it may be. We have a movie film of the ride and know that bicycles do not keep themselves up as if frozen.
That we should fall off the utopian bicycle is clear enough. Perhaps the writer himself does not mean to concern himself with reality? Did Voltaire think those elders and their younglings in Eldorado would remain the same if they discovered the power latent in gold and jewels? Or was there a touch, a feather brushing him as he wrote, of the haliporphuros ornis? Certainly from the musical made of Candide it would be easy enough to suppose so. Sometimes the modern utopians give a sketch of the history that led up to their utopias but it has never seemed convincing to me. Wells gave a sketch in The Shape of Things to Come and more romantically in The Sleeper Awakes. Indeed, during the last hundred years the utopian has had hanging over him always the brooding question from Marx, 'How are you to bring it about?' That Marx found the wrong answer does not lessen the importance of the question. The question leads us from Utopia, a little further on. It leads us on by way of two works to which time has already brought a vagueness of outline. Are they utopias? Surely not, you will say! What, Erewhon and Brave New World? Surely they are satires? But I believe we ought to be careful before we put them into that pigeonhole. Erewhon, where disease was a crime and crime a disease is not with us in full extent; but it is remarkable how many of the situations and conversations in the book could come nowadays out of a court. After each case and before sentence the social worker stands up and explains that the unfortunate person in the dock is not a criminal; or if he does happen to have criminal tendencies, why, a long history of this and that has proceeded and produced them. I do not mean to deride this practice in any way. I merely point out that if Erewhon is a satire civilization has produced a situation somewhat like it; for do not those of maturer years regard our thickened waistline as evidence of crime? Of sin? It is wicked to be unhealthy, wicked to be fat, and if we have a tendency to the rheumatics, why we should have learnt to adopt a correct posture early on. As for the whole question of teeth—but I have said enough, I hope, to let you see what I mean when I say that Erewhon today looks less like a satire than a progress report. The case of Brave New World is similar. It was, and I suppose still is, taken as a satire on society and the way society was going. It differs from Erewhon in that Huxley gives it a bit of a history. There had been a war and it had so sickened the world that it ended up gratefully under the benign eye of Our Ford. That was a pleasant jibe; but having lived through two world wars, after each of which the worldwide cry was 'never again', and in spite of which we still face the ghastly possibility of a third one, I take leave to doubt the validity of the historical assumption Huxley made to get humanity to the brave new world. The third war, unthinkably ghastly, will certainly be followed by a feeble moan of'never again' from the few unhappy survivors. But as before, in the face of intransigent humanity I doubt that 'never again' will mean more than it did before. Now as far as the satire in the book is concerned, it has suffered something of the same sort of fate as Erewhon. Truth has not caught up with it wholly but is on the way. A dullard, living now and enmeshed in the scene of any of our great cities would recognize a great deal that he tacitly approves of. It is a world of consumer goods and television quizzes. Brave New World's combination of games, sex, interminable pop music varied only by orgiastic revivalism prompts the ungenerous thought that Huxley believed most people needs must love the lowest when they see it. Erewhon, as I remember, is timeless. But if Huxley's society was not going to last for ever, at least by building on the lowest common denominator of human appetite, it did promise a state that would be able to last longer than most. In the pride of education, intelligence, perceptivity, aesthetic enjoyment, creativity, we ought to be careful that we do not find ourselves like Lewis's Sorns, living in the last tenuities of a planet's atmosphere. Huxley's world, an apparent satire, hideous for the intellectual, for the religious, for the scientist and the artist might claim that it did at least promote the gross contentment of the many; and that is not wholly to be despised. There is, behind the witty surface of the book, what Huxley suffered from as a young man—a contempt for I'homme moyen sensuel, for most of us in fact. By the time he wrote Brave New World, like Malvolio, he was thinking nobly of the soul. As the clouds of war darkened over Europe he and some of our most notable poets removed themselves to the new world, vanishing, as it were, with a sweet odour and a melodious twanging. There Huxley continued to create what we may call antiutopias and utopias with the same gusto, apparently for both kinds. One antiutopia is certainly a disgusting job and best forgotten. But then, Huxley seems always to have had an equation in his mind between evil and dirt as if morality were at bottom a kind of asepsis. Yet I owe his writings much myself, I've had much enjoyment and some profit from them—in particular, release from a certain starry-eyed optimism which stemmed from the optimistic rationalism of the nineteenth century. The last utopia he attempted which was technically and strictly a utopia and ideal state, called Island, is one for which I have considerable liking and respect. He does give his Utopia history and a single revolver shot signifies its end. If the drug mescalin has proved more dangerous and less helpful than Huxley thought it would be, the same thing is true of Plato's authoritarianism, More's Christianity, and Wells's scientific rationalism.
What are we to make of it all, then, utopia and satire? It really is difficult to see where one begins and the other ends. We recognize as satire, and savage at that, Huxley's picture of children deliberately bred and trained into being alphas and gammas and the rest. We may see Wells's Selenites in The First Men In The Moon as an even savager attack on the industrial deprivations that made men into images of any dirty trade. But Plato's Golden Children are bred and trained into fitness for their task as Philosopher Kings. Is there any difference? Plato drew his image, and a real one it was, from Sparta, Wells from all the mess of the depression and the desperately competitive industry that preceded it. Huxley, I suppose, thought in some scientific terms or other—biological engineering, perhaps. It would seem from the world we have round us that to satirize society by means of a clownish utopia is a dangerous thing to do. Lucian did the same in his journey to the moon. No, you cannot outrun the facts very far. Depict a utopia in which you would not wish to live and you may end like Christopher Wren, whose monument lies all around him.
There is, of course, another thing. Let us accept that Plato's Atlantis, or More's Utopia are what they purport to be—that is paradigms for society. Let us accept that from Lucian to Huxley utopias can be intentional satire however much the event catches up with them. The other thing is the antiutopia. In our generation, or even in our century, the nature of the cosmos, the universal premise is still very much under debate. Perhaps it always will be. It is in the knowledge of that fundamental dubiety rather than single doubt, that infinite regress that surrounds us on every side, that some minds are drawn to work. It is an awareness not exact, but a shared feeling, a Zeitgeist if you will, as if the proper image of man had its face veiled. It is a sad knowledge that antiutopians share among them. Their hearts are not ebullient as the satirist's, not savage either, but broken. It gave the dying George Orwell no consolation to write Nineteen Eighty-Four as an illustration of the monstrous social thing that could happen when political theory and humanity are out of step. He knew it was happening, just across the road, so to speak, under Joseph Stalin. H. G. Wells, so sanguine as a historian, or would-be historian, had unfathomable depths of darkness in him when he really let his imagination run loose, as anyone who has studied his scientific fantasies, his SF, must be aware. The Time Machine is as terrible, no—a more terrible picture of what man might become even than Orwell's. Wells died among all the horrors of a universe running down in cold indifference to a pointless end. That is how he saw it. For his last book, Mind at the End of its Tether, is misery and a barely concealed terror. Yet he did not write it with the desire to make other people unhappy by forcing an unhappy truth on them. It is at this point that we come, I believe, to the true reason for the invention of an antiutopia. It is at once a cry for help and a cry of despair. The antiutopian wants to be proved wrong. No antiutopian desires to hurt. But he has looked into the face of man rather than statistical humanity. He knows, too, that the clock does not stop.
And now, though I do not like to be posted into a pigeonhole like a letter, I have done it in this essay to so many other writers it is only fair that my own turn should come. I must own that you could argue reasonably enough that one of my books, or the tone of it, is antiutopian. It was a book stemming from what I had found out during and for a few years after the Second World War. You can connect the two easily enough in your own minds so I will not elaborate. It was an experience that fell to the lot of my generation. I used children because I knew about them and they were to hand. I described no particular child, for a novelist does not work that way; and in any case, to do so would have been unfair. But I did conduct an experiment, allowing a class of children as much freedom as possible and only intervened when there seemed to be some possibility of murder being committed. That, and the war and its aftermath were all my research. As for the elaborately described island, it was an escape to a part of the world I had never seen but wanted to, a tropical island. I made myself a haliporphuros ornis and flew away from rationed, broken England with all its bomb damage, flew away across the flowers of foam to where the lianas dropped their cables from the strange tropical trees. It has convinced some people because it convinced me. I was there; and sometimes it seemed a pity not to enjoy the place rather than allow the antiutopia to take over. But take over it did.
However, time marches on. I no longer feel so antiutopian. Of course, we shall have to get off our bicycle sooner or later. A precise theology has defined the moment as when the last trump is blown. A less precise political science will define it as when the red button in the presidential holdall gets pushed. A precise science tells us that we shall have to dismount when the sun hots up. Another precise science tells us we shall get off when the sun cools down. In any event as I said before, if we do not dismount with dignity from our circling planet—and I would define that dignity as a calm awareness of the majesty of our consciousness and the sheer drabness of indestructibility—if, I say, we do not get off, then either theologically or politically or scientifically we shall be pushed. I do not find the prospect distasteful. It is not just that I shall not be there anyway. It is that all these questions deal with Humanity, whereas what matters is the future of you and me and our children's children. Besides, though Heraclitus declared that everything flows and that you cannot bathe twice in the same river he also said, anticipating by more than two thousand years a hymn well known in schools, that the sun is every day new.
As a diagnosed and perhaps condemned antiutopian I offer you the distilled wisdom of fifty years. It is my only contribution to political thought and it could be inscribed on a large postage stamp. It is simply this. With bad people, hating, unco-operative, selfish people, no social system will work. With good people, loving, co-operative, unselfish people, any social system will work.
It is, then, a moral question. Well, we have had australopithecus, homo habilis, homo neanderthalensis, Mousterian Man, Cromagnon Man, homo sapiens—has nature done with us? Surely we can search that capacious sleeve and find something a bit better! We had better decide we are Lamarckian and make it work. We must produce homo moralis, the human being who cannot kill his own kind, nor exploit them nor rob them. Then no one will need to write utopias, satires or antiutopias for we shall be inhabitants of utopia as long as we can stay on the bicycle; and perhaps a little—not much, but a little—dull.
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